1. What factors does Mervyn Hiskett attribute to the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio?
2. Would M.G. Smith agree with Hiskett's analysis? Why or why not?
3. Describe three theories M.O. Junaid outlined in his essay. Which one do you find the most convincing and why?
4. Explain some of the theoretical framework (methodologies) Peter Waterman outlines. What conclusions does he draw?
5. In what ways did the Qu'ran dictate how women should be treated in Islamic society? Did social interactions actually align with what was written in the Qu'ran? Provide examples for your analysis.
6. Who was Nana Asma'u and why is she important to our understanding of Muslims in Africa? How did the scholarly community find out about her?
7. Were economics an important element in the life Nana Asma'u? Why or why not?
Muslim Africa from Collins
ReplyDelete1.) Hiskett attributes the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio to the potency of his religious message and favorable ideological climate. Some individuals grew tired of of living in a pagan community, so they used their ability to interpret the Qu’ran to become arbiters of personal and social morality. Ultimately, this gave to the rise of the reformist movement of Shehu Usman dan Fodio.
2.) Smith would not entirely agree with Hiskett because he believes it is much more complex. Smith believes other factors played a major role such as ethnicity, kinship, and secular and political resentments and loyalties being being among those of importance. These factors often obscured the Shehu’s religious principles and political advantage appears as a general feature of all jihads under “heathen” rulers.
3.) The first theory is based on lower class people trying to establish a state on the basis of Islam where social justice and equity would reign supreme. He references Dan Fodio’s teachings referring to the multiple acts of corruption and injustice the rulers committed. The effects of a Islam government would include improvement of the welfare of the poor and the striving to reform the markets. The second theory claims it was a tribal conflict between the Fulani and corrupt leaders of Hausaland for political power. There are problems with this theory such as the Fulani history with Islamisation and and superiority in the art of writing and literacy. Plus, if the movement was based on tribal nationalism, then outside parties would not have gotten involved. Dan Fodio claimed that superiority due to tribal or racial differences was unacceptable. The third theory is that the movement as essentially an intellectual movement aimed at achieving religious objectives. It is clear that the fundamental cultural values of Dan Fodio and his group rooted in Islam. It was hard to differentiate between true believers and those who pretended just to reap the benefits but still glorified other practices. I agree with the third theory because it is evident through their works that the sole purpose of the movement was for religious revival.
4.) Waterman outlines among other things that we have to look at the economic structures of this situation, where he points out that the new kinds of trade developing. He also states that ethnic relations is more marginal rather than central to the conflict in Hausaland. He points out Waldman’s view on social conflict that many people were dissatisfied with the Hausa order and were potential supporters for a movement of protest. In the framework of ideaology, one notes the coexistence and tension in the economy and in ethnic relations. It was a very delicate equilibrium where religion could play a role of a progressive force ranging on a scale of reformism on one end to revolution on the other. He concludes with various new hypothesis’ that include a more detailed and sophisticated study of the local economies, the contradictions within economic structure, a crisis within society that led to changes in multiple areas, and change at the ideological level.
Muslim Africa from Course Packet
ReplyDelete5.) Women’s importance is highlighted in the Qu’ran in the first chapter where the prophet Muhammad’s wife provides clarity to him. The Qu’ran repeatedly emphasizes equality between men and women and the importance of pursuing knowledge as a means of knowing God is stressed to all. The influence of patriarchal culture in Islamic societies has privileged the education of boys and men. Formal schools are more likely to be segregated by gender and are narrow in their interpretation of Islam’s message. In Islamic societies today, girls are favored to leave their formal education in favor of marriage.
6.) Nana Asma’u was born into a Fulfude-speaking Fulani family of Qadiriyya Sufi intellectuals in the northern Nigeria region. She is the daughter of the Shehu. She was raised in a time of crisis caused by the suppression of her father’s preachings. Her work was founded on religious precepts of equality and reflects a history of women’s involvement in the pursuit of knowledge in Islam. The scholarly community found out about her after her biography was published at the end of the twentieth century.
7.) I believe economics were not an important element n the life of Nana Asma’u. Her life was dedicated to the premise that the accumulation of knowledge was of prime importance. There was no limits of intellect, gender, nationality, or creed. She only strived to spread knowledge among the Islam culture.
(Sorry, was too long to publish in one comment)
1. Hiskett explains that unpoliticized trading routes in the Maghreb helped facilitate the trade in both materials and cultures between the Sufi's and the Shehu's. It is possible that these rapidly developing trade routes played a crucial role in expanding the works of Usman dan Fodio to new areas outside of her abode in Northern Nigeria.
ReplyDelete2. Smith would not be on board with Hiskett's argument. Smith argues in his essay that since their was no literate proof of what happened, it is difficult to present singular reasons as to why Shehu Usman dan Fodio rose to power. Smith thinks of the situation as a complex system in which the ideologies of the local peoples must be taken into account, for they were being exploited and mistreated at the time.
3. Theory one involves the rise of Usman dan Fodio as being a religious movement that saw the local people of what became the Sokoto Caliphate spread the ideologies of Islam in an attempt to promote social equality and justice. Theory two argues that it was a tribal altercation that involved the Fulani and the Hausaland. The Hausaland were in control at the time and the Fulani's felt it was time to lash out at their exploitative superiors. Lastly, the third theory describes the situation as a mere intellectual movement that resulted from the rise of newfound religious ideals. While i agree that the third theory could describe the ultimate end-goal best, I feel as if the term "intellectual movement" doesn't do much justice due to all the blood that was shed and conflict in the area.
4. Peter Waterman takes an in depth look at the economics of the area at the time Usman dan Fodio rose to prominence. He argues that it was economic tension in the area that largely led to the uprooting of the Hausaland rather then ethnic or religious tension. With the emergence of new trade routes such as the ones Mervyn Hiskett implored, Islam was so easy to spread in the area because with it brought new trade and economic opportunities for the people in Northern Nigeria.
5. The Qu'ran promotes the equality between man and woman in terms of social status and in pursuing knowledge and an education. In fact, it was Muhammad's wife who even wrote the first Qu'ran. That being said, gender stratification still developed in Islamic nations as patriarchal systems spread. Men soon became prevalent in acquiring proper educations and opportunities for women began to decrease. Today many Islamic women are denied proper educations in favor of men. An example would be women being legally prohibited from attending school under Taliban rule in Afghanistan.
6. Nana Asmau was a scholar and writer in Northern Nigeria during the early 1800's. She was born into conflict with her Fulani people socially and violently lashing out against their Hausaland superiors. Her works shined a light on what Islamic ideals of gender equality and the importance of women in the spread of Islam were at the time. Despite having local reclaim and outstanding talent, she was virtually unknown to the outside world because of her gender and inability to publish and distribute her work. It wasn't until the 20th century that the scholarly community outside of her area took notice of her works. This newfound introduction of her importance came from a biography published over a century after her death.
7. Economics were not too important in the life works of Nanu Asmau. Her entire career as an author focused on the extent of knowledge every individual should set to discover regardless of personal wealth or economic system. Regardless of her economic well being, I believe it is safe to assume Asmau would have retained her focus on her Islamic beliefs rather than ever worrying about the economy in the area.
1. One primary factor Hiskett attributes to the rise of Dan Fodio is the economic convenience that was tied with Islam in North Africa. He details how individual merchants who brought gold across North Africa formed small Islamic communities which eventually began to affect bordering communities. As the Islamic groups grew, the non-Muslim and Muslim communities existed side-by-side. Non-Muslim communities viewed the literacy of Muslim communities as a superior attribute. Among the intellectuals of the Muslim communities, Shehu Dan Fodio sat at the top. Dan Fodio was seen to have a superior intellect thanks to the zealous manner in which he studied and taught the Qu’ran.
ReplyDelete2. Smith would more than likely disagree with Hiskett’s analysis: Hiskett viewed the intellectual superiority of Islamic communities as a vessel through which Dan Fodio was able to rise to the top of the totem pole, where Smith argues that Dan Fodio was attempting to gain political dominance through religion. Smith furthers her argument by citing Weber’s statement regarding Islam’s theocratic nature where it is referred to as, “an essentially political character.” This indicates that Dan Fodio understood that Islam’s followers would not only be under the thumb of the government, but God as well.
3. Among the theories outlined by Junaid are the Social theory, the Ethnocentric theory, and the Intellectual dimensions. The social theory is primarily influenced by Marxist philosophy in that it focuses on class distinction and dynamic. Additionally, Marxist philosophy focuses on the role of the lower class and their conditions under the rule of the upper class. The Social theory essentially states that Dan Fodio found success through enlightening the lower class to overthrow their tyrannical overlords. The Ethnocentric theory states that Dan Fodio found success in bringing together the Fulani through the esprit de corps of Islam to combat the corrupt leaders who sat above them. The intellectual dimension of Dan Fodio’s success can be most simply explained through Junaid’s raw analysis: “The intellectual output of of the Jihadi leaders undoubtedly helped to sharpen the religious awareness needed for the total reform of Hausaland.” I find the ethnocentric theory the most convincing because the common brotherhood of Islam is what caused its spread in the past.
4. Waterman outlines quite a few theological frameworks. The first two stand out the most to me: the socio-economic formation and economic structures. The socio-economic formation essentially states that if Islam was initially spread through trade routes, that the maintenance of Islam led to peaceful trade, and surplus. Seeing as slaves were a valuable commodity in the past, the economic structures states that Jihad was not only fueled by religious fervor, but also a quest for slaves.
5. Contrary to common misconceptions, the Qu’ran dictated that every member of the faith be literate, including women. This alone speaks volumes about gender equality in Islam. According to Mack, the Qu’ran guaranteed egalitarianism among sexes. However, social interactions did not align with what was written in the Qu’ran. Mack states, “the influence of patriarchal systems on the social organization of Islamic societies has privileged the education of boys and men.”
6. Nana Asma’u was a female Islamic scholar, “female,” is the operative word due to the gender dynamics of Maghreb society. She wrote many religious passages and poems on the teachings of Islam. She is important to our understanding of Islam in Africa because she is a testament to the fact that the Qu’ran actually does dictate the equality and education of all members. Her biography wasn't published until the end of the twentieth century, but her legacy had been passed down through generations up to that point.
7. Nana Asma’u dedicated her time to studying, preaching, and teaching the Qu’ran; economics did not seem to be of much importance in her life, at least that’s what the reading convey.
1. Hiskett attributes the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Folio to the strong influence of his religious message and the favorable ideological climate in which his message was received. The dissatisfaction of life within the Hausa kingdoms were rooted in the stark contrast that the way of life had with their Islamic ideal. This conflict set the tone for the reformist movement of Shehu Usman dan Folio.
ReplyDelete2. Smith would not agree with Hiskett's school of thought. Smith believes that the jihad is much more complex than what Hiskett is insinuating. Smith believes that there is more to the conflict than Muslim vs. non-Muslim. Smith attributes things like ethnicity, kinship, political/secular resentments and loyalties, advantage along with many others as being factors that contributed to the jihad.
3. M.O. Junaid outlined three different theories pertaining to the jihad: the social theory, the ethnocentric theory, and intellectual dimensions. The social theory discusses the Marxist influence on dan Fodio's jihad. This theory is the belief that the concern for the establishment of an ideal Muslim state was the unifying factor in dan Fodio's jihad. The ethnocentric theory is the belief that the jihad movement was a tribal conflict between the Fulani and the rulers of Hausaland. This theory believes that religion was only used as a guise for the acquisition of political power. The intellectual dimensions of the jihad are rooted in the literary activities. This theory is the idea that the intellectual output of the jihad leaders increased the religious awareness that was crucial for a total reform of Hausaland. I find the social theory to be the most convincing. I believe that living an oppressed lifestyle is enough to spark a jihad. Living under leaders who sell justice to the highest bidder and operate under a biased taxation system convinces me that dan Fodio did not have to do much convincing. The social climate of Hausaland was enough to make the citizens want a revolution.
4. Waterman introduces numerous methodologies that he believes should be used when examining the jihad of dan Fodio. He references Jack Goody as he examines the socio-economic formation of the jihad. Goody's thesis states, "while trading patterns and military organization had some similarities to those of feudal Eurasia, productive relations differed in important respects" (171). Waterman references Walter Rodney's study of the Futa Djalon jihad when discussing the economic structures of dan Fodio's. This conflict is rooted in the struggle between the pastoral and agricultural economies. Waterman goes on to discuss ethnic relations, social conflict, and ideological differences. Waterman concludes by offering hypotheses that he believes would enrich the study of this area and period of African history.
ReplyDelete5. Islam was founded on human equality and the pursuit of knowledge. Islam carries the promise of equality for all, regardless of gender, race, or nationality. However, social interaction did not always align with what was written in the Qu’ran. Islamic cultures throughout history have been of patriarchal bias. While there is equality in Qu’ranic languages, often there is inequality in education between the two sexes. The education of men and boys has been privileged throughout Islamic societies. There are various settings for educational activities. However, the construction of education and the settings in which education take place relies heavily on family circumstances along with the obligations of urban and rural life. Sometimes a woman’s formal education stops after her marriage.
6. Nana Asma’u was born into a Fulfulde speaking Fulani family of intellectuals. She is important to the understanding of Muslims in Africa because she was a scholar, poet, and teacher. However, she is not an exception rather an example of Muslim women who are lifelong learners. Asma’u is an example of women who choose to extend their investigation of Qu’ranic wisdom through individual study and regular seminars. Asma’u had a fierce passion for the Qu’ran’s message of equality that often showed through in her written works. The scholarly community did not find out about her until after her biography was published at the end of the twentieth century.
7. Asma’u was born into a family of Qadiriyya Sufi intellectuals. Since her family was comprised of mostly intellectuals, it is safe to assume that economics played an important role in her life. She had the freedom to write, learn, and grow within her own self. She was not limited by obligation to her family. She was surrounded by a family that encouraged her to learn and write. This greatly impacted her life as a scholar and role as a teacher.
1. Hiskett says that a “mixed Islam” emerged in Hausaland, which saw pagan and Islamic practices coexist among the majority of the population. Slowly, however, a class of intellectuals emerged who were “deeply influenced by Islamic Ideology” and who were becoming gradually more intolerant of pagan and hypocritical practices. He attributes the effectiveness of the rise of these individuals, among whom Shehu Usuman dan Fodio was a leading figure, to their strong academic background and zeal.
ReplyDelete2. M.G. Smith would disagree with Hiskett’s analysis. He sees the rise and effectiveness of the jihad as a much more ambiguous process, and one that, instead of being controlled by an educated upper class, was actually greatly assisted by the lower, uneducated classes. He says that instead of the intensity of the Shehu’s zeal being the driving force behind the Jihad, there already existed a popular discontent with the ruling class. This resulted in “pastoralist and farmer, native and immigrant… [pouring themselves] into this conflict.”
3. M.O. Junaid describes a social or Marxist theory, an ethnocentric theory and an intellectual theory for explaining the Jihad. I find the Marxist approach to be the most convincing. On one hand, this might be because Junaid himself seems to support this theory the most. He doesn’t devote very much space to the intellectual theory, so it is hard to be convinced by this theory in contrast to the others. He also provides a greater deal of evidence against the ethnocentric theory than he does against the social theory. But personally, I just think that the reasoning behind the social theory is more convincing, mainly because widespread governmental abuse and disregard for lower classes seems a strong motivator for rebellion.
4. One of the methodologies Waterman outlines are two attempts to adjust and apply Marxism to explain the type of society that existed in Hausaland before the jihad. He cites an argument made by Jack Goody that shows that the economy in this region cannot compared to classical feudalism because it lacks a means of production for a bourgeois class to control. Yet Waterman questions the usefulness of this approach, saying it seems to resemble approaches that call some African societies feudal if for no other reason than they cannot be classified as classically pastoralist or capitalist. A second Marxian approach is made by French scholars Godelier and Suret-Canale. They argue that Marx’s idea of an Asiatic mode of production and can be formatted to fit certain African societies, if the need for ‘great works’ and ‘despotism’ can be removed, because it explains an economy dependent on village communities and subsistence farming. Waterman shows that this theory, because it stresses the ‘durability of the economic base,’ explains why the jihad essentially replaced one aristocracy for another. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch disagrees however. She agrees with the importance of subsistence farming to the economic base, but argues that, in removing the need for ‘great works’ from the Asiatic mode, Godelier and Suret-Canale ignore the importance of trade to this region of Africa. She states that only domination of long-distance trade could provide the required Marxian surplus and can therefore be substituted for a classical means of production.
5. The Qu’ran originally provides for gender equality, seen through its use of gender-neutral language for example when calling for the believer to be educated, saying “He causes those given knowledge to realize that this Revelation is your Lord’s Truth.” However, this was overridden by the traditions of the patriarchal society already in place in the 7th century, resulting in priority being placed on the education of men and boys (Mack, 20-21).
Delete6. Nana Asma’u was a scholar, teacher, and poet born into a Fulani family of Qadiriyya Sufi intellectuals in 1793. She was mentioned briefly in other works about her time period, leading to further examination into her life and later publishing of her biography. She is important, not as an exception but an example of a wider group of educated women in the Maghreb during this time whose existence was obscured. One way this occurred, in Asma’u’s case, was that her works of poetry were published as part of her father’s text and the wider practice of signing a man’s name to a completed work “for propriety’s sake.” (Mack, 27)
7. Economics do not seem to have figured heavily into Asma’u’s life. He brother, Bello, “held an important role” in the ruling Sokoto Caliphate, so perhaps this was the origin of her apparent economic freedom and ability to focus solely on her writing and studies. (Mack, 26)
1) One factor that Hiskett attributes to the rise of Shehu is the economic convenience. I believe that the trade routes helped to expand the role of Shehu to neighboring areas.
ReplyDelete2) I do not think Smith would agree with Hiskett’s analysis. Smith argued that since there was no proof, it makes it hard to say this is the reason why Shehu come to power. Smith believes the ideologies of the locales must be accounted for since they were being exploited during that time.
3) Three theories outlined in M.O. Junaid’s essay are 1) the Social Theory, 2) the Ethnocentric Theory, and 3) the Intellectual Dimensions. The Social Theory is the belief that the concern for the establishment of an ideal Muslim state was the unifying factor in dan Fodio's jihad. The Ethnocentric Theory believes that religion was only used as a template for the acquisition of political power. And the Intellectual Dimensions is the idea that the intellectual output of the jihad leaders increased the religious awareness that was crucial for a total reform of Hausaland. The Ethnocentric Theory is the most convincing because the common brotherhood of Islam is what caused its spread in the past.
4) Peter Waterman outlines the Socio-economic Formation and Economic Structures methodologies. The Socio-economic Formation states that if Islam was initially spread through trade routes, that the maintenance of Islam led to peaceful trade, and surplus. The Economic Structures states that Jihad was not only fueled by religious vigor, but also an expedition for slaves.
5) Islam states equality for everyone and it does not care about what your gender is, your race, etc. The social interaction does not always align with what was written in the Qu’ran. Men were more privileged than women from an educational standpoint.
6) Nana Asma’u was part of a Fulfulde-speaking family of in Nigeria and was the daughter of Shehu. She is important to our understanding of Muslims in Africa because her work reflects the history of women’s involvement in the chase for knowledge in Islam. The community found out about her at the end of the twentieth century when her biography was published.
7) I do not think economics played a major role in Nana’s life because she was more focused on her Islamic beliefs than the overall economy.
1. According to Hiskett, the driving factors were trade and the knowledge of the Muslims. The traders arrived first, seeking gold and slaves. They then set up small Muslim enclaves, which were little more than a coexistence of Islam and local religions. They were followed by scholars seeking patronage from the courts. The scholars established themselves at the courts, where they were seen in a positive light due to their "superior magic" as compared to the natives.
ReplyDelete2. Smith would almost certainly disagree. Whereas Hiskett takes a somewhat generalist, basic view of jihad, Smith takes a much more expansive one. He argues that there were many underlying factors, other than Muslim/non-Muslim status. He argues that the "usual suspects" (tribal affiliation, politics, ethnicity, etc.) were to blame, not just Muslim v. Heathen conflict.
3. The "Social Theory" basically states that the the people were pissed at the government, and as a result they were sympathetic to the formation an ideal Islamic state. The "Ethnocentric Theory" states that the basis of the conflict was a dispute between the rulers of Hausaland and the Fulani. Under this theory, religion was merely used as cover for a power grab. The "Intellectual" theory basically holds that it was the writings of the leaders of the jihad advocating for change in Hausaland sparked the conflict. To me, it seems that some combination of theories one and two is most likely, as the people of the area were very poor and mistreated, making them ripe for a revolution. Theory two comes in due to the political realities of the situation: we (as rulers) disagree, so let's have a war to see who is stronger.
4. Waterman uses socio-economic, economic, ethnic, social and idealogical frameworks to analyze the events happening in Hausaland. Under the socio-economic, he concludes that class affected trading ability and thus relative power. Under the economic analysis, he states that slaves and capture thereof was the primary driver. In the ethnic, he concludes that ethnic tensions were a large problem, even though they were essentially never resolved. Under the ideological, he basically states that differences between Muslims were the undercurrents of conflict.
5. In a nutshell, the Qu'ran says women and men are to be treated equally. No, most Islamic societies do not treat men and women equally. This usually takes the form of not allowing education of women, or if they are educated then they are not really allowed to be very open about it. Most women are taken out of school at a younger age then men, and are then consigned to perform domestic chores.
6. Asma'u was an important teacher in Hausaland. She was the child of the Shehu, who eventually launched his jihad. She was intensely devoted to teaching others, writing a considerable body of literature to be used for teaching. She was largely unknown until the end of the twentieth century heralded a biography. She is important to our understanding as she shows that patriarchy was not 100% dominant, and she also raises the possibility that there were in fact others like her.
7. Likely not. She had a single minded focus on study of the Qu'ran and teaching of others about it. Outside of Qu'ranic commands concerning it, she likely did not care.
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ReplyDelete1.) the economic convenience is attributed to the rise of the Shehu according to Hiskett. The trade routes furthered the expansion to neighboring areas. She also attributes the rapid rise to the strong influence of the religious message and the favorable ideological climate the message was receive in by Shebu Usman dan Follo.
ReplyDelete2.) Smith could not agree entirely because he believes it is more complex. He believes things like ethnicity, secular and political disagreements also played a major role. These factors often blurred the Shehu’s religious principles. Getting a political advantage is often the defining feature of jihads under radical rulers.
3.) one theory concerns a tribal dispute involving Fulani and the Hausaland. Hausaland was in control but the Fulani’s felt implied to resist their superiors. Another theory describes the rise of Usman dan Fallo as a religious movement that saw the indigenous people of what turned into Sokoto Caliphate spread islam. The idea was to promote justice and social equality. The last theory points to a more intellectual movement created by the rise of new religious ideals. The third theory describes the end goal best but the bloodshed and conflict in the area does distract from the point it makes about it being an intellectual movement.
4.) one theological framework is the socio-economic formation. This formation states that if islam was spread through trade routes then the upkeep of Islam led to surplus and peace. Another one is that slaves were valuable as commodities the the economic structures infer that jihad was not solely fueled by religion but also for slaves.
5.) the Qu’ran initially called for gender equality, you can see by its use of gender-neutral language. An example is calling that the believer to be educated, specifically “He causes those given knowledge to realize that this Revelation is our Lord’s truth.” Though this became overridden by the new traditions of a patriarchal society in place during the 7th century. Thus men and boys became the primary people to be educated.
ReplyDelete6.) Nana Asmau was a writer in Nigeris in the 1800’s. She was born during extreme conflict between her people the Fulani and the Hausaland superiors. Her writings helped to shed light on gender equality in Islam and how important women were to its spread. However she was widely unknown because of her being a female and the lack of being able to publish. During the 20th century she was found. She became important after her biography was published after her death.
7. according to the reading economics was not of major importance to her life. Her main concerns seemed to be preaching, studying and the teaching the Qu’ran.
1. Hiskett attributes the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio to the growing sense of disapproval the Islamic elite felt toward Muslim commoners. Islamic scholars like Shaikh Jibril b. Umar felt that most African were not following the Islamic faith like the Quran intended. When the Elite felt that they could not peacefully convince commoners to practice Islam properly they turned to violence.
ReplyDelete2.M.G. Smith would agree that Shehu Usman dan Fodio dissaproval of pagan practices mixed with Islamic ones was a major contributor to the waging of jihad but he wouldn't agree that was the only reason. Smith believes that power was also a significant motivator for the waging of jihad. Smith supports the idea that jihad was for political advancement by referencing the idea of hijra. Hijra refers to leaving lands of the heathen pg.158. Instead of leaving the lands alone he decides to conquer them. Also the reasons that jihad is typically waged were not present when Shehu Usman dan Fodio started his jihad suggesting it was for political motives.
3. According to M.O. Junaid the social theory of the Jihad movement suggest that the main reason for Jihad was the unfair rule of the elite. According to this theory Shehu Usman dan Fodio waged Jihad to free the poor from oppression and mistreatment. The Ethnocentric theory advocates the idea that religion was used as a mask to cover Shehu Usman dan Fodio quest for power. Opponents to this idea argue that this idea completely ignores clear role that Islam plays in writings, but some say that religion was used to motivate the Muslims under Hausa rule to join their cause instead of fighting under the flag of tribal conflict.The Intellectual Dimensions theory states that the rise of Islamic intellectuals resulted in the spread of proper Islamic teachings to those who still mixed Islam and traditional religions. With the help of intellectuals people were enlightened by proper Islamic life and inspired to rise up against their rulers.
4. Peter Waterman analyses jihad in Africa by using economic and social aspects of the Hausland culture. Waterman uses the issues of injustice that are present in a feudal society as a reason for jihad.According to Waterman the peoples dislike of the class system and social injustice led to Jihad. Waterman also suggest one of the major reasons for the social divide was the exploitation of the Fulani to supply the growing trade demands of the Europeans. The need to keep up with a growing market had social effects which created an environment that was right for Jihad.
5. The Qu'ran encourages women to become scholars however many Islamic societies do not allow this practice.This can be seen in history where the works of many female Islamic scholars were ignored for many years. Since "the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge is the basis of moving closer to God" women to were encouraged to become scholars however many societies prohibit women from learning.
6. Nana Asma'u is an African scholar who studied in the 18th and 19th centuries. Asma'u is a representitive of female Islamic scholars who continued to study throughout her life. Asma'u was well known for her academic prowess and is proof that the Quran does encourage continual learning for both genders since her family were strict followers of Islam.
7. I would say that economics were not that important to Nana Asma'u. Since she was an intellectual and surrounded herself by people who were also intellectuals I believe the pursuit of knowledge was more important. Nana Asma'u continued to pursue knowledge in medicine and religion throughout her life and became well known for scholarly work.
Hiskett claims the rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio is due to the intellectual climate paired with a dissatisfaction with life in the Habe Kingdoms.
ReplyDelete2. Smith would most likely disagree with Hiskett as he believes the cause to be a little deeper. He mentions things such as kinship, ethnic identity, secular political resentments and loyalties, antagonisms, among others. These things confused the ties and alignments of the people, not cut and dry like Hiskett makes it seem.
3. Junaid's three theories are: The Social Theory, Ethnocentric Theory, and Intellectual Dimensions. The social theory takes a Marxist approach by looking at the class distinction. The lower class was treated poorly, so he stood upon social injustice to further his cause. The Ethnocentric Theory was basically a viewpoint that the Jihad movement was a conflict between the Fulani and the corrupt rulers of Hausaland. Religion is used as a veil to cover the true purpose of gaining political power. The Intellectual Dimensions theory states that the intellectual output of the Jihad leaders helped spread awareness for the need of reform. It was hard to tell who was truly a believer under the Hausa rulers, many would claim to believe but practice "manifestations of kufr (unbelief). The Social Theory is the most convincing because over time, corruption and mistreatment will lead to a social uprising. This paired with the intellectual renown of the Jihad would be a perfect recipe for revolution.
4. The methodologies defined by Peter Waterman include that of Economic Structures, Ethnic Relations, and Social Conflict. Waterman believes that the only possible conclusion is to critically study the various theories. To truly understand the "crisis" in Hausaland is to take a closer look at the economies of the local areas.
5. The Qur'an clearly emphasizes the importance of equality between men and women. It repeatedly uses language that specifies each group to promote this equality. Patriarchal systems privileged men and boys education opposed to women and girls. The societal standards for gender equality did not align with the Qur'an. Many societies even to this day do not value women's education, as adolescent girls are sometimes expected to leave their education behind in pursuit of marriage.
6. Nana Asma'u was a female Qur'anic scholar. Asma'u was mainly focused on instructing the masses, such as relating spiritual and civil obedience. Asma'u was also responsible for compressing the names of every chapter of the Qur'an into thirty verses of a didactic poem. She wrote the poem in three languages and intended it to skillfully guide instruction of the Qur'an at both beginner and advanced levels. Her impact on the area is unquestioned, but she was not revealed to the outside world until her biography was published.
7. I believe economics played a partial role in the life of Asma'u as it would any other, as she was granted time to study and focus on the creation of her works. Although she was provided with this "lifestyle," she was a pioneer and I believe no matter her circumstances she would have found a way to make her mark.
1. Mervyn Hiskett attribute to the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio to the fluid exchange of knowledge between Muslim scholars. Caravan routes without borders created cultural and educational exchanges between scholars of both genders. Unlimited by political boarders, intellectual production between scholars was vital to the region.
ReplyDelete2. Smith would not agree with Hiskett’s analysis. Smith has a very complex view on the issue while Hiskett simplifies it. Smith argues that other issues like politics and ethnicity attribute to the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio.
3. The three theories are Social theory, the Ethnocentric theory, and the Intellectual dimensions. The social theory has to do with class. The idea of targeting and influencing the lower class to go against their leaders. The Ethnocentric theory is that religion was used to gain political power. Finally, and the Intellectual dimensions is the intellectual output of of the jihad leaders increased religious awareness. Personally, I find the Ethnocentric theory the most convincing. The idea that the religion itself was used as a way to gain political power seems very possible and convincing to me than the others.
4. He looks closely at economics and the relation to class. He discusses that class effected the ability to trade and therefore effected power and economic status in society. Islam was spread easily throughout the many trade routes in Africa.
5. In the Qu’ran women are said to have equal rights and opportunities with men. Repeatedly the Qu’ran emphasizes the equality between women and men. But the patriarchal systems in Islamic societies do not align with the teachings of the Qu’ran. For example, extremely patriarchal societies limit women’s access to education, which is something women are specially offered in the Qu’ran.
6. Nana Asma’u is an impressive scholar, teacher and poet. She taught audiences of both men and women. She strongly believed in the equality of the sexes written in the Qu’ran. She demonstrates that by targeting various audiences’ women of many levels of education preparation and degrees of literacy can be lifelong learners. She was the daughter of Shehu Usman dan Fodio and she gained recognition after her biography was published at the end of the 20th century.
7. I think economics was an important element in the life of Nana Asma’u. She was a very educated woman. Her family had to have lived in a place with access to higher education and the economic resources to provide her with education.
Muslim Africa from Collins
ReplyDelete1.) In the reading, Melvyn Hiskett attributes the success of the Shehu Usman Dan Fodio, Jihad's, to the potency of his religious message and favorable ideological climates. Husked tracks this movement of the Jihad gaining back land in the South Sudan that once was taken from them.
2.) Smith would have to think against Hiskett's idea because he believes that it was much more complex ideas such as: ethnicity, kinship, secular and political resentments and loyalties, and etc. Which all of these factors caused the obscurity of the Shehu's religious principles and an advantage towards politics.
3.) The first theory is over the social classes that reigned during this time period where the rulers, being Jihad's, would run through the lower classes seizing their properties and controlling them to where they could not attempt to violate the rulers in charge but the rulers could do what ever they wanted to the lower class. Dan Fodio believed this was total power abuse of the government, which needed improvements in the welfare of the poor and the reform of their markets in order to stabilize the community. The second theory was conflict between the Fulani and the corrupt rulers of Hausaland and that the religion was used for political power. This theory was obscured through the fact that the Fulani was not superior in arms or political administration, which can cause them to fall into more supreme powers and cause them to fail in the success of the Jihads. Then a survey came out and depicted the fact that the role of the Fulani had diffused the Islamic faith. Don Fodio maintained the fact of superiority based on tribal or racial differences, which was absolutely unacceptable in the Islamic doctrine. The third theory is a movement towards achieving literary activities in order to reveal religious practices. From the writings of Abdullhai and Muhammed Bello, Dan Fodio believes that the fundament culture values which himself and his group sought after was deeply rooted in Islam.
4.) In the collins reading, Waterman begins to first outline the economic structure through the conflicts between Fulani and Mandinka because of the European demands for economic supplies, which the two groups in conflict allows the Djalonke to come in and exploit them economically as well. Second The Fulani would fall in the low status of the Hausa community and to the ruling class where they would be taxed and better controlled. Third the Hausa community for not convinced that the social order was perfect and believed that the rulers had to much power and began the movement of protest, causing social conflict. The fourth being the ideology of coexistence and tension between ruling class and Islam, which stresses over the economy, politics and ethic relations. Then finally comes to the conclusion composing of five hypothesis that givers better understanding to changes in the economical, ethical, social and ideological conflicts happening within the Islamic communities at the time.
Muslim Africa from Mack
ReplyDelete5.) The importance of gender equality in the Qu'ran first stating off how Muhammad's wife who brought solace and clarity to Muhammad. Throughout the Qu'ran it states that men and women should be treated equally through the language and in the interest to gain knowledge. Also it states that women are to be respect, which gives them equal rights and opportunities as men. Yet in the patriarchal systems on the social organizations of the Islamic societies gives the privilege for education of boys and girls, yet in a formal status they are separated by gender and narrow the interpretation of the Islamic messages.
6.) Nana Asma'u was born into a Fulfulde-speaking family of Qadiriyya Sufi intellectuals. She is the daughter of Shehu, which they reigned up in the Northern part of Nigeria, and she also was raised in the climate of crisis caused by the suppression of Muslim King's on her fathers preachings. Asthma helped her father rise against his oppressors by teaching masses, teaching men and women scholars, training women as itinerant teachers of secluded women, and created works for teaching the illiterate Hausa-speaking refugees. This showed that her work consisted of equality for all and the involvement of women throughout the history of Islam to gain knowledge. Not many women where known for their works due to the fact that most of the ones published where never huge items in the Islamic region.
7.) In the readings economics does not seem to be the main worries of Nana Asma'u, due to the concentration for equality through out the Islamic states for all Muslims.
1. One factor Mervyn Hiskett gives attribute to the rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio is the trade routes between metropolises. People would come into Hausaland to trade, and leave with a knowledge of Muslim culture. This would spread from city to city among the trade routes.
ReplyDelete2. Smith does not agree with the theory Hiskett has to the rapid rise. Smith believes things such as ethnicity, kinship, secular resentments and loyalties between people in the region as key factors in the rapid rise. He says it is a more complex system than just Muslim vs. Non-Muslim.
3. Juniad had three theories in this essay: the social theory, the ethnocentric theory, and the intellectual dimensions theory. The social theory is that Fodio's jihad was the main cause for the establishment of the Muslim state. The ethnocentric theory is about the jihad movement and how it was a tribal conflict between the rulers of Hausaland and the Fulani. It also believes that this theory was only a quick way to gain political power. The intellectual theory is that the spread of the jihad's leaders raised the awareness of the religion that led to a change in Hausaland. The ethnocentric theory makes most sense to me. It seems that is what jihad leaders would do is cause conflict when someone chooses not to believe in the same thing.
4. Waterman outlines the Socio-economic Formation and Economic Structures methodologies in this essay. The Socio-economic Formation states Islam spread through the trade routes and was peaceful. He also believed that class and military organization played a role too. The Economic Structures states that trading of slaves is what the Jihad were interested in. If they controlled the slave trade, they would gain power.
5. The Qu'ran shows equality between both men and women. Men and women should both be literate and gaining knowledge of God is of most importance. Men are definitely favored in Islamic societies but schools separate the men and women because women are known to drop out of school to become a wife and mother. It is the social norm for Islamic women to seek that path.
6. Nana Asmau was a scholar and writer in Northern Nigeria. She was born into a Fulani family of Qadiriyya Sufi intellectuals. She was a great teacher to others and wrote on the religion on Islam. Asmau is important because she shows how hard it is for Islamic women to get involved in society. Her works were not known until the twentieth century when people outside of the region started looking in on her works because she was not able to publicize anything.
7. I do not believe that economics was a major factor in Asmau's life because she was only dedicated to the knowledge of the Islamic religion and spreading it through her teaching, writings, and poems.
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ReplyDelete1. Some factors that played into the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio was the Fulani presence that moved into the Hauseland, the firm establishment of Islam in the fifteenth century, the status that came with being scholars at the time, and the resulting Fulani jihad which in the end gave them control of most of the Hauseland.
ReplyDelete2. For the most part, M.G. Smith would agree with Hisketts analysis because while Smith does discuss both ways that the jihad can be defined, he also discusses how many accounts today show Shehu dan Fodio in a favorable light. The fact that it is hard to come by Shehu’s books and writings gives the works that are presented more merit. Smith alludes to the fact that regardless of what way the jihad is defined, the ultimate purpose (in the eyes of Shehu) was the spreading of the Muslim Faith through means of war.
3. The three theories that Junaid outlined in his essay were the Social Theory, Ethnocentric Theory, and Intellectual Dimensions. Of these three theories, Intellectual Dimensions seems pretty convincing because in order to have a swift transition into Islam, Fodio and his followers not only needed the power of force, but also the persuasive power of intellect. In order to leave a lasting influence on the Hauseland, Fodio had to have knowledge of the works of ethics, government, and the effects of religion.
4. Waterman outlines the socio- economic formation within the region. In doing so, he compares the organization of leadership in West Africa to the feudal society of Eurasia. The major difference that he points out is the fact that Chiefship tended to be over men, not land, and rulers had to attract and restrain men themselves. He also discusses the tensions between pastoralists and agriculturalists within economic structures, ethnic relations, and social conflict.
5. The Qu’ran promotes equality amongst all of its followers of Muhammad, including women. The book also encourages the educating of men and women of the faith. Though this is encouraged, the influence of patriarchal systems allowed education to become more privileged amongst boys and men. It is also important to point out that within Africa, the majority of slaves were women. This point is important because it shows the effects of patriarchal ideology within Africa.
6. Asma’u was one of Shehu Usman dan Fodiyo’s daughters. Through being born to a powerful family, Nana was able to become a very educated scholar of her time. She was discovered through her various works which discussed the Qu’rans message of equality and other traditional sets of material. She was versed in several languages from Fulfulde, Hausa, to Arabic. Some of her written works were used to educate both men and women in the Sokoto Caliphate.
7. While Nana’s life centered on her building knowledge of the Qu’ran and other readings, it is quite evident that her status played a role in the knowledge and influence she was able to acquire. Without the influence of her powerful family within the region, her teachings would probably never be as scrutinized as they are today. From looking at this perspective, economics were an important element in her life.
1. Mervyn Hiskett attribute to the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio by showing the factor that he created the powerful Caliphate at Sokoto and confirmed the rule of Islamic law and government.
ReplyDelete2. M.G. Smith disagrees with Hiskett's analysis. He thinks Mervyn Hiskett has failed to appreciate the jihad’s tremendous complexity. Also he thinks Shehu’s case is overshadowed by his followers and myriad motives. Historians should look at the facts like ethnicity, kingship, and antagonisms to figure out the opposition between Muslims and Non-Muslims.
3. The first theory that M.O. Junaid outlined in his essay is the social theory. It helped Dan Fodio to conceptualize the prevailing forms of oppression, exploitation, and injustice. The second theory is ethnocentric theory. It states the conflict between Fulani and corrupt rulers which expedite the spread of Islam in Africa. The last theory is intellectual dimensions. It clears the values of Dan Fodio’s fundamental culture and explains their belief as while. I like the social theory the most because it states how great Dan Fodio did to other people and how important his religion believes are.
4. Peter Waterman believes it is important to understand the economic structure in hausaland so historians could determine the causes and effect of jihad’s movement. He found historical evidence about social, economic, ethnic and ideological element to draw his conclusion that jihad was in a difficult situation due to unorganized tributary mode of production, development of economy.
5. Qur’an dictates the equality between men and women through language that specifies each group. However, the social interactions didn’t actually align with what was written in the Qur’an. For example, most of girls will lose the chance to have education and get married after they reach the secondary-school level. Even though, Qur’an repeatedly said the importance of pursuing knowledge, not all girls can have guaranteed education.
6. Nana Asma'u was an impressive scholar, teacher, and poet who emphasis the Qur’an’s message of equality. She had done lots of articles about Muslims in Africa which are pretty accurate. Her works not only include Qur’an lines about gender issues but also stories about jihads involve the history of Islam. The scholarly community said that she was the model for women throughout the Maghreb who choose to study and give legitimacy to their pursuits.
7. I don’t think economics is not an important element in Nana Asma'u’s life. Because she give most of her life to pursuit the equality of both side of Muslims and spread doctrine. Those things are not really related to the economics。
ReplyDelete1. Mervyn Hiskett attributes the success of the Shehu’s jihad to the religious messages that contributed to the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio. Islam was appealing to many new followers and this appeal allowed the religion to penetrate into remote areas.
2. I believe M.G. Smith would agree with some parts of Hiskett’s conclusions, but disagree with other parts. M.G. Smith believes the history of the jihad lies somewhere in between. It is possible that the jihad could have caused Shehu Usman dan Fodio to rise, but the jihad is so complex, that historians must look at other factors.
3. In his essay, M.O. Junaid outlined three theories: social theory, ethnocentric theory and the intellectual theory. These theories look at the pattern that could have caused the rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio. The social theory is based on the Marxist philosophy, the division of social classes. The lower class were tired of being oppressed and they just need the right leader or opportunity for them to rise up, which caused the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio. In the ethnocentric theory, the belief was that there was conflict between the Fulani and Hausa. In the Intellectual dimensions theory, the belief was that the reform movements led to a lot of literary activities. I find the first and third theory more convincing, but especially the first. When a group of people have been oppressed for a long period of time, they will become frustrated and angry over time. They will become restless, rigid and ready for change. If change doesn’t come, they will fight for their change and freedom, whether it’s religious or political freedom.
4. Some of the theoretical frameworks that Peter Waterman used were the social conflict and ethnic relations. In the social conflict, Waterman says that the word “social” has been interpreted incorrectly in the pass. In the ethnic relation, Waterman believes that too much stress is placed on the Fulani-Hausa conflict.
5. Even though there is a heavy patriarchal bias in Islamic culture, Islam was founded on human equality and the pursuit of knowledge. Originally, Islam beliefs were that all humans were equal, no matter the gender, race, nationality or any other factor. In the Quran, women were encouraged to study. However, Islamic culture did not allow women to study and denied them those rights. Even when Muslim women are engaged in intellects, it goes unnoticed. Beverly Mack provided examples of when Muslim women engaged in scholarly findings, but their work remains unknown.
6. Nana Asma’u (last name meaning beautiful) was born into a Fulfulde speaking Fulani family. She was the daughter of Shehu Usman dan Fodiyo. Asma’u was an impressive scholar, a teacher, and a poet who demonstrated that women were lifelong learners. It didn’t matter what level of education they possessed, the Muslim women, with all the obstacles in their way, were lifelong learners. The scholarly community only found out about her when her biography was published at the end of the twentieth century.
7. I do not think economics was an important element in the life of Nana Asma’u. According to Beverly Mack, “her life was unusual in being intensely politically and intellectually focused.” (p.24). She was raised in a time of crisis, and to her, education could have been her way out of the crisis. Asma’u believed in the Quran’s message of equality, so I feel like that was also her main focus in life.
1. There were certain factors that led to the rapid rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio. One factor that help lead to his rise was the “precolonial caravan routes, unbounded by polity borders.” These routes helped facilitate communication between the region of Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, and northern Nigeria. Moreover Hiskett states that the Shehu had “cordial relations” with the leader of a Sufi community who had similar visions as them.
ReplyDelete5. The Qu’ran placed a big importance on the individual’s pursuit of knowledge. In the ideal Muslim world women are allowed and encouraged to seek more, but in actuality they have “denied women such rights,” and “colonization” of foreign people have oppressed this right to women of Islamic society. It is also noted that in the Qu’ran the wording is “gender-neutral” meaning that the teachings doesn’t specify a gender such as “he” but says things like “Oh you who believe!” Because of the patriarchal society already established and further stressed by colonization, women aren’t always treated as accordance with the Qu’ran. However, one thing that makes it difficult to know if women played a huge role is the fact that there exists a lot of oral teachings in the Islamic society and also due to the fact women had to sign their names as their husbands.
6. Nana Asma’u was an scholar, teacher, and poet who happens to be a woman well documented for her work. Asma’u is important for our understanding of Muslims in Africa because of all the works she’s contributed to the learning of Islam. Her works reached a wide-range of people due to the fact she was quad-lingual and translated her work across 4 big languages in her region. Another importance of Asma’u is what type of literature influenced her which a good portion of her learning came from the Qu’ran and the Sunna which she used to help her make a mnemonic device to remember the titles of the 30 chapters in the Qu’ran. The scholarly community discovered her because she comes from a family of many renowned scholars including her brothers and her father who was “a man compelled to follow in the foot-steps of the prophet Muhammad.” Additionally, due to their being no national borders at this time, scholars and their teachings crossed over to many cultures at this time and because of trade it allowed the intermingling that occurred between these regions in Northern and Western Africa to assimilate and spread her teachings around.
7. Economics were not an important element in Asma’u’s life because she didn’t view them as such through Islam teaching. Her book Tabbat Hakika emphasized the need for use of “divine law” which sent a message to women of all social status, ethnicity, and background which means your economic status didn’t matter. The gender equality teachings that showed up evident in her work showed that economics was not important and also her appeal to many different social groups further pronounced the unimportance of economics in her life.
1. The Hamitic hypothesis is a hypothesis that states, all culture and invention found in the ancient continent of Africa was the doing of a group of Caucasians, the Hamites. The hypothesis goes on to say that iron working, which we learned in class was originated in Africa, was the work of this traveling group of Caucasian people who provided infinite knowledge and understanding to the native savages. This theory was widely publicized in ancient times due to the need for euro-asian superiority of the African continent. This hypothesis became the basis for the need to colonize and "civilize" the savages that roamed the great dark continent. We have learned through the class that this hypothesis holds no barring when evidence from the archaeological record is consulted. Iron working was originally a trade of the peoples of Africa, as well as the domestication of plant life into agricultural society. As well as all life which originated and migrated from the continent of Africa.
ReplyDelete2. Dr. Diop's research and works pointed to the fact that he thought of all of Africa as one Black race. He argues that there is no way to culturally divide the people of the Nile valley region into Egyptian, Nubians, etc. All of the people from that area were of the same "race" and developed together under the prosperity brought on by the Nile's fertility. He goes on to assert the question, what is a true Black person if not someone who developed on the continent of Africa along the banks of the Nile. Other anthropologist have described the Nubians as true black people and he doesn't see a way to justify separating these groups.
3. Many people came to the side opposing Dr. Diops theory that Egyptians must be "true black people" due to the area they developed. One major argument was along the lines that with so much trade and intermingling amongst other peoples of the world, Egyptians could not be "true black people". Scientist argued that the Egyptians were a mix at best. They were darker than the greeks but due to euro-asian influences they were unable to be classified as just another African civilization. In regards to this point, I do think that due to the intense intermingling amongst other cultures that Egyptians probably did not have the same developmental lineage as say the Nubians. However, I don't think this disqualifies them from being of the same "race" as the other people who shared refuge in the Nile river valley.
1. The Muslim scholars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were able to communicate across northern and western Africa without restriction. These areas that they used to travel around have since been fixed with national borders due to colonialism. The fact that they all had access to common philosophical perspectives, based in the Qu’ran, and that they shared the same language, Arabic, helped create an intercommunication zone of active intellectual exchange throughout the Maghreb and surrounding regions. Mervyn Hiskett believes that the relationship between the Shehu and Shaikh al-Mukhtar al-Kunti, the leader of a Sufi community, had a prominent role in the rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodiyo. The Sufi devotees were supposedly avid travelers between Hausaland and Cairo, or Fez, and often dispersed accounts of wondrous visions experienced by the Shehu. Since everyone in the large region spoke the same language, shared many of the same core philosophical beliefs, and travel around the region was not very much restricted, it is reasonable to assume that these three factors played an important role in Shehu gaining a large following.
ReplyDelete2. Smith would disagree with Hiskett’s analysis because he believes more complex factors also played a role in the rise of the Shehu. Such factors as kinship, ethnicity and secular disagreements could also be of importance.
3. The first theory outlined by Junaid is the Social Theory which about people from the lower classes trying to establish a state to provide equality and justice under Islam. The second theory is the Ethnocentric Theory, which states that the Fulani tribe came together to fight off the oppressive rulers from Hausaland. The third theory is the Intellectual Dimensions, which states that the rise of intellectuals led to the spread of proper Islamic teachings based on spiritual equality. The social theory is the most convincing theory to me because it is very reasonable to rise up against your oppressors when you have a solid leader to guide you. On top of that, you know that your oppressors are denying you fundamental equality that is granted to you by God.
4. Waterman outlines the socio-economic formation and economic structure in the region. These two theories basically state that the spread of Islam was done through trade and that the Jihad played a role in the trading of slaves.
5. The Qu’ran preaches racial and gender equality. “This premise is repeated clearly throughout the Qu’ran.” (Page 154 of Bel-Jean). Although some societies tried to limit the rights of women based on patriarchy, women usually find their right to pursue things like education under “the authority of the divine word.” Ideally, women are allowed and even encouraged to study, (the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge about the universe is the basis of moving closer to knowledge of God, so it is mandated for every individual, page 155), but women have been denied such rights in many Islamic societies. Influence of patriarchal systems in Islamic societies has privileged the education of boys and men, however private education programs, such as those operated by the Sufis, are likely to be conducted in an egalitarian manner in informal settings for discussions. The intellectual education of Muslim women was usually done through orality and not observance of written works.
6. Nana Asma’u is the daughter of Shehu Usman dan Fodiyo, leader of the Sokoto Jihad, who was born into a family of Fulfulde speaking family of Qadiriyya Sufi intellectuals. She is significant to the outside world because she exemplifies many women in the Muslim community who generally did not publish intellectual works because Islam places a strong emphasis on orality. A lot of the knowledge that Muslim women obtained was not written down and therefore they were not well known outside of the community. The reading states that “Asma’u was an impressive scholar, teacher, and poet, but it would be a mistake to dismiss her as an exception.” She was one of a plethora of Muslim women who adopted learning as a lifelong habit. Several of her sisters who are just as well educated and erudite are unknown because their works were unpublished. Her writings revealed that her education inclided the study and implication of classical works and also collaborative activity with her family members and peers. She wrote many religious teachings including a poem to help people memorize the Qu’ran and a writing which was intended to justify the righteousness of waging Jihad to her people. Her life was dedicated to the premise that the accumulation of knowledge was of prime importance. She was relatively unknown to the outside world until her biography was published in the late twentieth century.
Delete7. Economics were not, in my opinion, an important part in the life of Nana Asma’u because she does she preaches about equality in Islamic law. The reading doesn’t mention anything about her family’s economic status, we only know that she has a very intellectual family lineage. Her quest for knowledge and her lifelong desire to learn are the two most important aspects of her life.
1. Hiskett attributes the success and rise of Shehu Usman dan Fodio to the religious message he brought and the ideal climate that was in their area. Living in an Islamic community was a benefit for trade, because the religion began to dominate most of northern Africa, and became the norm for many trading communities of people.
ReplyDelete2. Smith believes the jihad is much more complex, and that many historians have failed to appreciate their complexity. Because most people of the time were illiterate, it is hard to know whether their reasons for Shehu’s rise could really be known specifically. The jihad, according to smith, was focused on the pursuit of political advantage.
3. Junaid has a social theory, ethnocentric theory, and intellectual dimensions. The social theory is justified by the work of the Jihad leaders themselves. They displayed various types of corruption, such as bribery and selling of justice to the highest bidder. The rulers paid no attention to their community and cared little about the poor and needy. The ethnocentric theory attributed the jihad movement to the mere acquisition of political power. This theory to many, oversimplifies the conflict between the Fulani and the Hausland. Fodio attracted many supporters based on religious beliefs, so this theory, that focuses entirely on ethnic and tribal lines (because of the huge difference in numbers) could not work. Intellectual dimensions are based of the literary activities of the time. From their writings, it is clear that their values are deeply rooted in Islam. I believe the social theory is the most convincing. It is most likely that the corruption of the jihad leaders oppressed the people, lead the people to easily accept and embrace Shehu.
4. Waterman takes a look at the social roots of the conflict, and studies Smith’s writings. He studied the society of Hausland at the time of the jihad. He notes that many writing, don’t go further than surface level in exploring the kind of society. Jack Goody explores the Marxist terminology and the relations with production and technology within the land. Focusing on economic structures, Walter Rodney pays attention to the trade of the time and suggests the demand for slaves, and hides were to the economic advantage of the Fulani and Mandinka. Ethnic relations focused on the difference between the people, and the very low statuses of peasants. Waterman’s focus on the social conflict was much like those historians before. He states that “if we understood the contradictions within economic structure we will be able to fully interpret those in such other structures as the social, ethnic, and the ideological.”
5. The Qu’ran establishes that men and women are of equal value, and suggests that their equality should continue within education and social status. Regardless of the writings within the Qu’ran differences between men and women were still present and grew in many cases. As men increased their education and work opportunities, women’s decreased. Even today, many Islamic women around the world are unable to obtain a higher social status or a good education.
6. Nana Asma’u was a female scholar and teacher. She is held up as an example of education and independence of women within Islam. The scholarly community discovered her after her death, when her biography was found. She shows as an example the importance of women within Islam and their involvement in the religion.
7. Economics were not an important element or factor within Nana Asma’u’s life as portrayed by her lifestyle and her writings.