1. In what ways have historians begun to reexamine the traditional story of Donatist sect? What types of evidence do they utilize in order to provide a more complex understanding of the Church conflict in North Africa?
2. Detail the divisions between the two Christian sects. Where does the "State" fit into this dispute?
3. Explain the three issues that we must recognize in order to understand the proper context of the Martyr stories. Why these issues important for both historic peoples and modern day scholars?
4. How and for what were Cyprian, Felix, Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda punished? Did these scenes of torture help or hurt the Donatist sect?
5. Does Gender fit into these new interpretations of the Donatist movement? Provide examples from the stories to support your points.
1.) Most of what was known of the church conflict in North Africa came from the view point of the Roman Catholics, the “victors story” as it describes it, by two men Optatus of Milevis and Augustine of Hippo. However, historians are now beginning to look from the perspective of the Donatists themselves through the stories of the martyrs. They are cross referencing the two sides to formulate a more accurate depiction of what actually happened.
ReplyDelete2.) The two sects were the Roman Catholic and the Donatists. Both sects are Christian but each views the other as heretics. The Roman Catholics are comprised of the Romans and the clergy that are scattered throughout North Africa and the Donatists are comprised of mostly North Africans which have their own bishops. The major rift between these two came from the persecutions of the Donatists by the Catholics. The Catholics tried to force the Donatists to give over sacred documents. The ones that did the faithful Donatist saw as traitors or “traditor”. This caused a rift in who each sect saw was fit to lead mass and other dealing of the church. In Roman eyes the state and church was one. They saw the state as god’s gift to man to create and maintain peace. The Romans used the state to persecute the Donatists.
3.) To understand the proper context, we have to look at: the genre of the stories, the degree of accuracy of the stories and torture. For example, the genres of the stories are in several different styles such as “acta or passiones". The style that each story is wrote in reflects who recorded the story such as a person in court or someone else. For accuracy we cross reference with the roman Catholic side of the story to delineate what is true and false. Torture is emphasized in the Donatist side, it is said they revel in it, to increase the importance of the martyrs and their resistance. We must look from the perspectives to understand the atmosphere of when the event is taking place and also to look at it from their culture perspective.
4.) Cyprian was condemned for being the bishop to the Donatist and leading in their ‘Impious attitude”. He was said to be found the leading in the “most awful crime” and was sentenced to death by sword.
Felix was condemned for not handing over scriptures and other sacred parchments and books. He was thrown in jail for a few days to be given a chance to reconsider but was eventually beheaded by sword.
Maxima and her sister Donatilla refused to sacrifice after acknowledging they were Christians, on their way to meet their punishment Secunda flung herself from her home to them and wished to join them. They were all tortured, (examples are coals being put in their hair, being whipped and lashed repeatedly). They were thrown in the amphitheater to be mauled and devoured by a bear but it did not harm them so they were executed by sword.
The torture of these martyrs only further the resistance of the Donatist as it gave them strength to hold out and not succumb to the Roman Catholic wishes.
5.) Martyrdom does not favor one gender over the other. In fact the martyrdom of Maxima, Donatilla and Secunda is one of the most prominent in Donatist history. Seeing the strength that the young virgin women portrayed gave a sense that all could withstand the punishment with the lords help and greatly increased the resistance of the Donatist against roman Catholicism.
The Donatist Martyr Stories
ReplyDelete1.) The Donatist-Catholic controversy has mainly been viewed through the writings of the Catholic victors, such as Optatus and Augustine. Historians began to reexamine this conflict by focusing on long-neglected text of the Donatist, which allows them to verify, expand, or correct Optatus and Augustine. They utilize Williams S. Babcock’s edition of translated Donatist material. They examine the stories of Donatist martyrs to gain a better understanding.
2.) The controversy began over the seriousness of a Christian succumbing to pressure in persecution and forfeiting Scriptures to be burnt or sacrificing as prescribed by law. The split into tolerant and rigorist parties began, with Donatist being the rigorist and the Catholics being tolerant. After the death of the bishop of Carthage, a successor was appointed without the contemporary procedure of an election, which angered many traditionalists. Donatist appealed to Constantine who, using the power of state, countered with the repression of those who refused to recognize the imperially-backed bishop of Carthage. At first, the general society did not believe the best interest of the state suited the Christian way of life so they perceived themselves as being at odds with the state. Then Christianity became a state-supported institution embodied by Constantine.
3.) The three issues are genre of the stories, the degree to which the stories actually reflect the events of the time, and torture. The acta genre focus on interrogation of the martyrs in judicial proceedings while the passions genre concentrates on the passions or sufferings and deaths of the martyrs. Some stories contain both so it is important to address the role the stories played in their communities to get a better understanding. Answering if the stories reflect the actual events is a difficult task due to the limited amount of data besides that generated by the Donatists themselves. Most material comes from their catholic opponents who themselves were a generation behind from the start of the movement. Finally, torture was legally sanctioned and socially acceptable to acquire truth or to punish an individual. It was only inflicted on members of the lower class with few exceptions. Since Donatists were mainly lower class, they received much of the torturing, probably a reason why it was so accepted. It is important to know that the scenes of torture served to keep Donatism alive by offering and reinforcing an alternate construal of reality. Modern day scholars need to study both sides of the controversy while applying cultural context to certain situations during a specific time period.
4.) Cyprian, Felix, Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were all punished to death by the sword, while the latter three were subjected to torture beforehand. They refused to give up their religious beliefs and practices for those of the empire, and therefore were sentenced to death. The scenes of torture helped the Donatist sect by usage of propaganda in their advocacy of voluntary martyrdom.
5.) Gender did not play a major role in Donatist martyrdom. This is exemplified through the story of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda. These three women were harshly tortured before they were executed, unlike the previous stories of men who were simply just put to death without being tortured. The strength and courage displayed by these women encouraged more Donatist martyrs.
In the past, historians studied the Donatist sect through the perspectives of Catholics from Rome. This was mainly because Catholicism and the Romans lived on years after the Donatists were no more so there were more writings and material from this point of view. In particular, writings produced from two Catholics by the names of Optatus and Augustine were used extensively to judge and review the Donatist sect. Recently however historians have begun to review texts from the Donatist martyrs that could shed new light on a more accurate depiction of their way of life.
ReplyDelete2. The two sects that became prominent were the Roman Catholics and the Donatists. They both share christian beliefs but opposition between the two arose when the Roman Catholics began to persecute the Donatists. Originally, the Roman Catholics attempted to take away the holy writings of the Donatists which did not bode well. The primary division between both sects is that the Donatists believe that any bishop or priest that handed over texts were illegitimate, for if they were true Christians they would've been willing to become martyrs. The State played a major role because in the Roman Empire the church and state were one, so when the Roman Catholic church had beef with the Donatists, they were able to persecute them using the State of Rome and the resources that the empire had accumulated.
3. the three issues include: 1. genre of the story 2. the degree/accuracy of the story and 3. torture. The genre of the story can be divided by acta or passiones and the point of view from which the story is told can have a heavy influence on how historians perceive the events. For instance, the acta genre focuses on the court proceedings and interrogation of Donatists while passiones can be focused more on struggles and choices made by the Donatists. In terms of the accuracy or degree of the stories, historians have been reliant on Roman catholic writings and perspectives, however, they have recently begun to cross reference stories from the Roman perspectives with actual Donatist perspectives. By cross referencing the stories, Historians hope to increase the accuracy of them and gain more insight on how the Donatists truly lived. Lastly, Torture must be taken into account too. Torture was mainly one sided, for it was the Roman Catholics who inflicted it upon the lower-class Donatists. While the Roman Catholics justified it and claimed that it was necessary to obtain the truth and to punish the Donatists, the Donatists became proud of the torture. They claimed that the torture exemplified their willingness to become martyrs which is a key aspect that divided the two religions. These issues are important to scholars so that they can develop an ideology on the Donatist sect without becoming influenced by the works of older Roman Catholics.
4. Cyprian was sentenced to death by sword after being found guilty of being a leading Donatist bishop. Felix refused to hand over holy writings and as a result also was sentenced to death by sword. Then three sisters Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were submitted to torture after not submitting their faith for they truly believed in their Christian values (Secunda sacrificed herself). They were sentenced to be killed by a bear but ended up being killed by death by sword as well. The torture that the three sisters endured added fuel and motivation to the Donatist sect and promoted voluntary sacrifice or martyrdom.
5. While gender may have impacted the day to day lives of Donatists, I do not believe it had significant affected the interpretations of the sect as a whole. A large basis of the Donatist movement revolved around the willingness to become a martyr and the story of the three sisters being subjected to torture then execution rejuvenated many Donatists' beliefs and they were praised for their bravery and courage. Their gender was not of much importance to fellow Donatists.
1. Previously historians only viewed history from the view point of the winners. Meaning historians only focused on the Catholic version of the struggle, because they had better access to Catholic records. But scholars have begun to focus on neglected texts not flittered by the Catholic church. Different Donatist martyr stories have been used as evidence to expand on the Donatist church. Along with Donatist books and translations, historians begun to look closely into the sources of basis and the context of these stories.
ReplyDelete2. One division between the two Christian sects was differing opinions on the State. The Roman Christians saw the State as necessary and the manifestation of God’s authority over people. While the general public felt that the State and the Christian way of life were not identical. These Christians viewed themselves as being at odds with the State. This led to persecution and defiance among the general society of Christians against the Roman Christians and the State. The Roman State ordered for these defiant Christians to hand over scriptures to be burnt. This created a division between those who didn’t hand over scriptures to the Romans and those who did. The large division resulted in many Donatist beginning to view themselves as martyrs for their faith and eventually be exiled.
3. The first issue is the Genre. The genre of the stories is constricted by the judicial procedure in Africa. Also, some parts of the stories seem to be edited for the Christian purpose. The second issue is the degree to which the stories actually reflect the events of the time. It is important to understand that historians have a very limited amount of data on the Donatist controversy. A couple things to keep in mind when evaluating these stories is that the Roman church was strictly intertwined and the lack of strict legal measures. The final issue is torture. It must be understood that under the Roman empire torture was legal and socially acceptable. These issues are very important for modern day and historic people, because they help to understand the context of these stories.
4. Cyprian was put to death by the sword for presenting himself as an enemy to the Roman State and Church. Felix was put to death by the sword for not handing over scriptures to be burnt. Maxima, Donatilla and Secunda were put to death by loin attack for being Christians. These scenes of torture helped the Donatsit sect. It was very admirable to be a martyr for your faith in the Donatist communities, therefore these public deaths were praise worthy to the Donatist people.
5. Personally, I don’t think gender had a large impact on the Donatsit movement. The Donatist were more concerned with people being martyred for their faith, no matter the gender. While the three girls were more harshly tortured than those of the men, the other Donatist focused more on the bravery of the girls rather than their gender.
1. The history of the Donatist-Catholic controversy in North Africa has been largely viewed through the eyes of the Catholics. The simple fact is that the historians have easier access to the stories associated with the Catholics, as they were the "victors." Recently, scholars changed their of focus to texts that came from the Donatists perspective. These new texts provide another side of the story to the Donatist-Catholic disagreement.
ReplyDelete2. The schism between the Catholics and the Donatists is rooted in the relationship of the Christian community to the larger society. Catholics supported the idea of the state being a "necessary condition of life," while the Donatists looked at the state as being a form of the Antichrist. Eventually when christian church became a state supported institution, this schism grew even wider. Catholics and the state worked together to persecute the Donatist Christians.
3. Modern scholars must understand the issues associated with the martyr stories because the narratives are written in a very distant culture. The three issues important in understanding the Martyr stories are the genre of the stories, the degree to which the stories reflect the events of the time, and torture which appears in nearly every martyr story. These issues were important to historic peoples because they each played a role in the community. This could be to inspire Christians to withstand the day to day harassment from society, or even as an instruction manual on how to "reply to your captors" and "endure torture."
4. Cyprian was exiled and then executed for being a bishop "for these people with their impious attitude." Felix refused to turn over sacred scripture and was sentenced to execution. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were young girls who refused to renounce their faith and were also executed. These scenes helped the Donatists because they were able to promote martyrdom and give reason for the Donatists to resist the larger society. (These people have gone through these haneous situations, you should be able to withstand the troubles of daily persecution.)
5. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda provide a clear example of the disregard for gender in the Donatist movement. These three girls reinforced the notion that age and gender were not an issue. Anyone could be a part of the Donatist movement and die the heroic death of martyrdom.
1. Historians have studied the church conflict of the North African region through the Roman Catholic traditions. Recently, historians have studied the view point of the martyrs of the region to find out what really happened.
ReplyDelete2. The two sects were the Roman Catholics and the the Donatists. The donatists consisted of North Africans who believed in their own Christianity ways while the Roman Catholics consisted of the Romans. The state fits into all of this due to the fact that they rounded up those that did not believe in the same deities as they did. They ordered them to hand over any scriptures that they possess so they can be burned and then ordered them to change their beliefs.
3. Accuracy, Genre, and torture are the three issues that must be recognized and discussed. The point of view of these stories can persuade the reaction those have of the events that occurred. From what we have read it seems as if the Romans were the villains and the Martyrs were the heroes. If the story was flipped and were told by the Romans, it could be seen as if the martyrs were defying the law of the land. The genre focusses on the death of the martyrs and how it is viewed. Torture is also taken into account based on the fact that the punishment did not affect the martyrs for the believed it made them stronger in the faith of their God. Again all leads back to the accuracy of the story and from whose side seems to be the accurate sequence of events.
4. Cyprian was executed by sword for teaching religious beliefs against the government of Rome. Felix was executed by sword for not turning over the religious scriptures he held in his possession. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were all also executed by sword. These three girls were executed due to the fact they would not sacrifice to the traditional gods. They were in the word of Jesus Christ and would not alter their beliefs.
5. I do not see gender being a major role of the Donatist movement. Both men and women were tortured and killed by the hand of a sword. All were asked to do the same thing when it comes to believing in the same higher being and all denied to.
1. Much like other subjects in history, the christian conflict that arose in Northern African due to religion's detailing has mostly only been studied from the side of the Roman Catholics. However, the saying "you listen to both sides and the truth is somewhere in the middle" is coming into effect as researchers are beginning to look at the texts written by the Donatists that detail the martyring events, the slayings by deocletian, and the development of the Donatist church through the eyes of the donatists. Many of these stories, including the ones referred to later in this assignment, were gruesome malicious acts set to punish and deter the donatists "heretics".
ReplyDelete2. The two sects that are represented in North Africa during this time period are the Roman Catholics, aka the state, and the Donatists, led by a bishop from Numidia named Donatist (Fancy that). The Roman Catholic sect was comprised of people from rome and their subsequent elite who ruled foreign land and returned goods to the kingdom. Donatists were comprised of Berber peoples who inhabited the North African region, heavy taxes and lack of adequate compensation led to a growing strife that eventually amalgamated into a separation into this Donatist church. The state during this period was attempting to gather up all religious materials in the hopes of strong arming the Berber people into their Roman Catholic teachings. Religion during this period played a strong role in governing bodies, if the Romans could control Berber religion, they could essentially pin the people into servitude indefinitely.
3. The three main points of concern when reading these stories are Accuracy, Genre, and the Torture. These issues are important because depending on all three, a piece of literature could be interpreted in many different ways, for instance; Accuracy reflects the correctness of the details in these stories. Since these stories were written by partisan people attempting to condemn their opposers in the eyes of the lord, some details could be exaggerated or stretched. Some of the deaths may have been more brutal in the texts than in real life to dissuade people from joining the Roman church and to persuade other impartial outsiders to side with the Donatists. The genre is important because these stories were written to illicit a response of negativity towards the Romans, reading these stories and accepting them at face value would be irresponsible for scholars know because we know the strife they faced and the writers of the time probably wanted to romanticize their martyrdom. The final aspect is the Torture, this is the most precarious of the three topics due to the fact that we have nothing besides the words written on the paper detailing the cruelty to back up these assertions.
4. All of these people were put to death for refusing to sacrifice their religion and join the Roman's side. 3 were put to death by the sword while the others were tortured and "made an example of" persay. The women, who had the most impactful story, were to be mauled and eaten by a bear. In the end though, the shows of cruelty only empowered the Donatists to remain steadfast in their beliefs. I would probably not want to just give up and join people that are torturing my friends, I can't imagine Id end up getting treated in a much more favorable fashion.
5. To me, it didn't seem like gender was even a talking point in these articles, at least not compared to the other articles we have read this semester. I was looking back to see if I could find any points that drastically emphasized gender as a defining point in the Donatist movement, but I couldn't find anything particular. I guess that counts as evidence to support the claim that gender wasn't a large factor.
1. In the past, the Donatist sect has only been studied through the perspectives of the Catholic victors. By studying it this way, there has been a misconstrued idea of what actually happened. The new evidence that is being reexamined is the translated stories of Donatist martyrs. By purely translating these stories, they fill in the gaps that the Catholics purposely left out when creating their victor's history.
ReplyDelete2. The division within the Christians of North Africa are the Donatist and the Roman Catholics. The Donatist movement was formed by traditionalist North African. These traditionalists believes that the only true Christians were the ones who did not become traitors by turning over physical objects to the Catholic church. The term traitor then followed that person's descendants, generation after generation. Donatist believed that all Catholics were traitors because they firmly believed that the writing were not only worldly things. They believed them to be the actual living Word of God. The State fits into this because the Roman Catholic church was the Empire. Therefore, the Donatist were rebels against both the church and the State.
3. There are three issues that readers must recognize to understand the context of these Martyr stories: the literary form, the accuracy of the stories, and the torture. The literary form of these stories could be either acta or passiones. This depended on the origin of the stories and what the main focal points were. The different forms of literature showcased how the event was recorded, whether the focus of it was the interrogation of the martyr or the actual suffering of the martyr. This plays an important role in determining the second factor, accuracy. Accuracy is crucial for both historic peoples and modern day scholars. It helps piece together what actually happened so that we can better understand the struggles that occurred within the context of these events. The third factor, the torture, is important. Torture was legally sanctioned and widely accepted as being part of the judicial process. Torture was only used on members of the lower class, which was mostly comprised of Donatists. These tortures, and the suffering of the other Donatists within the lower class, were written as a way of inspiring the Donatist who were fighting the same fight. The recording of the torture became a mantra for what they should strive for. They were hoping to inspire their people to value death over betrayal. All of these pieces help modern day scholars put together the puzzle of what actually happened since there are so many gaps, and pieces, that do not fit.
4. Cyprian was ordered to death by the sword by Galerius Maximus for gathering around "an ungodly company of conspiracy" (4). He was executed in front of many people. Felix was ordered to death by the sword after refusing to turn over scriptures. He was given many warnings, and he had to suffer the harsh living conditions within the prison. However, he did not give them up, so he was beheaded. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were all ordered to be tortured after not sacrificing under strict orders. They were tortured and beaten until it was ordered for them to be eaten by a ravenous bear. When the bear did not eat them, all three were beheaded. The stories of these martyrs only strengthened the cause of the Donatists. It was believed that only "true" Christians could withstand the tortures. therefore, these stories were evidence that their cause was the true and good fight.
5. Based on the story of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda, I do not believe that gender played a role in the Donatist movement. These three women were praised after enduring torture, a close encounter with a bear, and then an eventual beheading. These women were looked at as being true, loyal, and martyrs. They stood firm in their beliefs and plays a crucial role in establishing that the bravery of these girls was far more important that the fact that they were girls.
1. Historians have come to realize that victors have the privilege of writing history. In these readings, we are given an inside look to the perspective of the persecuted Donatists. Historians use accounts from Donatist martyrs to tell the stories.
ReplyDelete2. The primary divide in the Church is between Catholics and Donatists. Donatists were Christians in Numidia who did not want to fall in line with excessive taxation that the now Roman theocracy was imposing. The taxation was so dissented because the fruits of North African labor were simply shipped to Rome to fuel the elite political class. Additionally, Donatists did not want people who had given up scriptures to the Romans to become Priests because it was incredibly treacherous in their eyes. The State fits into the equation when Rome became a theocracy under Constantine.
3. The three significant issues that are imperative to understanding the stories of Donatist martyrs are the genre of the stories, how well the stories actually convey the events, and torture. The genre of the stories is acta/passiones. If we look at the meaning of the word passion, it refers to the dedication of a cause so much to the point where you incur damage and pain because of it. Most of the records historians have analyzed it has been from the Catholic side, rather than the Donatists. With regard to torture, it’s detailed quite well in these stories. The Donatist martyrs were tortured in attempts to make them commit apostasy.
4. All the martyrs were ultimately executed by sword. I’m sure it was much to the Roman elite’s dismay that the girls weren't harmed by the bear. However Donatila, Maxima, and Secunda were tortured with coals in their hair and lashes. Cyprian was executed by the sword, and Felix was executed by the sword as well.
5. From what was conveyed by the authors, it didn't seem that gender played a huge role in the torture or martyrdom of Donatists. However, Maxima, Secunda, and Donatilla were virgins. Their virginity is significant because it may give a reader the feeling that they are pure or innocent individuals, only making the appeal of dissent through martyrdom that much more potent.
1. Initially, the traditional story of the Donatist sect was told by the victors of the struggle. Those who recorded the time in history, Optatus of Milevis and Augustine of Hippo, knowingly provided a piece of history that was full of bias. However, scholars have now taken the writings of Donatist martyrs and are using them as an additional source in order to further expand the understanding of Christianity in North Africa. Serge Lancel and Jean-Louis Maier have translated works for a French speaking countries, while William S. Babcock has provided sources for an English speaking audience.
ReplyDelete2. Although Christianity in North Africa was rooted at the same place, the religion eventually divided into the Roman Catholic and Donatist sects. As the Donatist sect grew and acquired more members they were declared to be practicing heresy and persecuted by the Roman government. Those who handed over religious texts were seen as traitors and not recognized as “true Donatists.” The Christians that handed over documents (now referred to as Catholics) believed that handing over the physical documents did not bear much weight on faith, and would rather become affiliated than the church rather than face death. These “traitors” believed the state as a gift from God and necessary to be intertwined with the church. Donatists however believed the state to be the work of Satan. Donatism, in the eyes of Catholic Christians, was seen as a threat to the church, the emperor, and the state as whole.
3.In order to understand the proper context of the Martyr stories, we must acknowledge genre, the historical accuracy of the stories, and torture of the Martyr. The Genre of the stories was divided into two categories : acta, which were geared towards the judicial portions and interrogations of the martyrs, while passiones played to the emotions and the suffering of the martyr. These stories were written not only to preserve the process and struggle for later generations, but also to inspire other potential martyrs. When questioning the accuracy of the stories we must consult the origin of the stories. Much of the works were written by Catholic opposition, so it is fair to say the truth in some writings may have been stretched essentially for shock value. To paint a more accurate picture we must include sources that do not have such a bias. Torture of the martyrs was stylized largely, again, in order to inspire other martyrs. The specifics of the torture displayed was created to keep the story resistance of martyrs alive.
4. Thascius Cyprian, along with his followers, was punished by the sword for teaching and leading an ungodly religion that conspired against the Roman deities and their holy religion. Felix was beheaded by the sword for failing to comply to the orders of the state and turn over his scriptures. The last three were told to be tortures, but also executed by the sword for not sacrificing in the Roman way. If anything the scenes helped support the Donatist cause.
5. I do not believe gender played a very large role in the role of Donatist martyrdom. Regardless of whether or not a person was a male or female they were praised for dying in the name of God. When comparing the stories of Cyprian and Felix versus the three females, there is no evidence of one story being favored over the other.
1. In the Past, historians have viewed the Donatist conflict with the Romans from a Roman perspective and not appropriately taken into account the side of the Donatist. Recently historians have been using a new source to analyze the conflict, a series of translated text unmodified by the Romans that shows the conflict from the side of the Donatist martyrs.
ReplyDelete2. The Romans believed that Christianity was an essential part of governing and it was their divine responsibility to mix the church and state. Many people did not believe that the church and the state needed to be involved together in order to have an efficient government. As a result there was a natural resistance to the governing methods of the Romans and the Donatist were willing to become martyrs to show their dedication to their faith. When Roman authority began using the persecution of the Donititst as a tool to obtain and keep power a movement began to resist by the Donitist. The division was only fueled when the roman state demanded the Donititst hand over religious text and the Donitist refused and became martyrs only increasing the contempt between the sides.
3. Cyprian was executed by sword for "pretending" to be a catholic bishop by being a Donatist Bsihop.Felix was executedq by for refusing to handover scriptures during the mass burnings.Maxima and Donatilla were put to death for not worshiping the roman gods while Secunda voluntarily became a martyr to protest the roman way of life.Maxima and Donatilla were lashed then they had hot coals put on their heads until finally they were out to death by sword.
4. Gender seems to play to a role in the Donatisit interpretation. In the Martyr story of Maxima,Donatilla, and Secunda portrayed these three women as powerful martyrs who repeatedly resisted the heresy of Roman ways. The three women were used as role models to gather more support by Donatist Bisjops(p.15). This especially seen by the inclusion of secunda in the story whose involvement cant be verified put she plays a crucial role by Giving up her pagan lifestyle in comfort to be a martyr. This was certainly used in my opinion to gather support from people of both genders.
1. Historians have begun to look at the story from the other side. Instead of looking at the story from the viewpoint of the winner, they try to look into the side of the Donatist that are persecuted. Historians have begun to look into the Donatist martyr stories. The works have been translated by different people for different languages.
ReplyDelete2. Catholics support the “State” being a “necessary condition of life.” The Donatist did not see themselves in accordance with the state because they felt that the Christian way of life was not identical with the state way of life. The dispute led to a disagreement in the Christians of those who handed over the scripture that was demanded by the Romans and those who did not. This led to the Donatist idea of becoming martyrs.
3. The genre, the degree of accuracy of the stories, and torture. The stories are divided into “acta” or “passiones”. Every story is defferent because of who wrote the story and how they perceived their position. The stories are cross referenced with the Roman Catholic side to try to see what is true and false. The Donatist side of the story always puts focus on the torture because of how they feel about being Martyrs for their religion. The stories must be assessed from a cultural perspective as well as a scientific perspective.
4. Cyprian was condemned for being the bishop to the donatist. He was sentenced to death by sword because was thought to have committed the worst crime. Felix was condemned for not giving away his books and scriptures and was eventually thrown in jail and killed by sword. Maxima and Donatilla were condemned for refusing to sacrifice after claiming to be Christians. They were on their way to be punished when Secunda joined them. They were tortured and left in an arena with a bear but it didn’t eat them so they were killed by sword. These stories empowered the Donatist and gave them the morale not to give in to the Catholics.
5. Being a martyr may not change whether you are a woman or a man but the impact of the story that you leave behind definitely changes due to gender. The donatist feel more empowered by the story of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda than they do about a man being punished and becoming a martyr.
1) Historians have viewed the Donatist sect from the perspective of the Catholics in the past. Historians have begun to reexamine the traditional story by looking at the neglected texts of the Donatists. They utilize the translated stories of the Donatist martyrs as evidence in order to provide a more complex understanding.
ReplyDelete2) The Roman Catholics and the Donatists were the division between the two Christian sects. The Roman Catholic sect was people from Rome and the members of elite class whereas the Donatists were composed of the Berbers, located in the North African region. The Berbers were heavily taxed by the elite class and this taxation with little in return lead to a strife that resulted in the Berbers parting ways and therefore created the Donatist Church. The State fits into the dispute because they forced the people that did not believe d in the same ideals to hand over their scriptures in order to be burned and be forced to change their beliefs so they aligned with the State.
3) The three issues we must recognize are 1) the genre of the story, 2) the degree and accuracy of the story, and 3) torture. Genre of the story is an issue because some stories seem to be molded and fir for the Christians. The degree and accuracy is another issue because historians only have so much data available and they have to paint the pictures of what potentially happened from records that we might not have. And the third issue, torture, is important because it was widely and publicly accepted. The issues are important for historic and modern day scholars because it also helps understand the context in which the stories took place.
4) Cyprian was found leading a Donatist bishop and therefore sentenced to death by sword. Felix refused to hand over scriptures and was also sentenced to death. The three sisters were tortured and beaten before being executed for not renouncing their faith. The scenes did help the Donatist sect and added fuel to the fire of their voluntary martyr beliefs.
5) Gender does not fit into the interpretations of the Donatist movement. The martyrdom of the three sisters is the most prominent. The Donatist were about being willing to die for your faith, so in my opinion, gender does not play a significant role in the movement.
1.) Much of what we know about the Donatist comes from the "victory stories" from the Roman Catholic writings by Optatus of Milevis and Augustine of Hippo, which cover up a lot of things that went on in the Donatist society. Yet some historians do not believe that all the facts from the Romans on Donatist is true, causing them to research more and end up findings pieces of Donatist writings from William S. Babcock.
ReplyDelete2.) The Divisions of Christianity came from Roman Catholics and Donatist, with each group believing they are true Christians. Yet since Roman Catholics is the majority ruling class around Northern Africa, they try to pull in as many Donatist by asking them for scripts or texts of Christianity. This in the eyes of true Donatist saw this as an act of traitors against the group, meaning they could no long preach or hold any scripts of sacred texts. Also the state is linked to the Roman Catholic Church, which was one and only ruling government.
3.) To better understand the history and give a better understanding for modern scholars there are three specific issues that are brought about in the Martyr Stories: Accuracy, Genre, and Torture. First lets begin with accuracy, which is important because there are two sides two the story, but with little evidence from the Donatist views really only give us the Roman Catholics view saying the Donatist were martyrs against the state. Second being genre, which bases these stories on acta or passiones. Acta is a focus that looks more into interrogations on the martyrs judicial proceedings, where as passiones focuses on the concentration of passions or sufferings of the martyrs. Both are forms of stories that are told through out the Donatist history, but yet historians have little information on it all due to the lack of scripts. The last thing that paves through the history for the Martyrs as well is torture, meaning that Romans saw torture as something acceptable in their societies to Donatist who refused to coincide with the Church/State. But as mentioned before the Donatist believe that true believers will resist the Church of the Romans and except the punishments in order to remain in good faith to get into their "heaven".
4.) Cyprian, Felix, Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were all executed do to their strong belief in the Donatist religion and refused the orders of the Roman Churches to give up their beliefs. So in committing the murders of these Donatist believers brought a huge wave a true believers who saw a good fight and cause to strike back.
5.) In the early stages of Donatist I am sure men had a lot of say on what went on and women kind of were off to the side, but as the stories goes on women do start playing a role in making Donatist beliefs grow stronger. For example Cyprian mentions that the women who suffered from standing and protesting for Donatist believe should be reprimanded due to the fact they were not the only ones at the time standing loitering in the streets.
1. Historians have begun to challenge the history of the Donatists as written by the Roman victors. They have started to utilize not only the Roman writings, but those of the Donatists as well. These writings are used both alone and in concert with the Roman writings, as a way to see the non-victorious Donatist side of things.
ReplyDelete2. The issues were many, but the two main ones were the issue of the state taking Scriptures and the election of the Bishop of Carthage in 311. The issue of Scripture pertained to the acceptability of giving up Scriptures to the state, either as taxes or to be destroyed. The Catholics said it was permissible, the Donatists said it was not. As to the election, the Donatists felt tricked by the way it happened, but a special commission of bishops in 313 and another appeals commission in 314 said otherwise. The state's role was the same as the Catholic Church, as they were one and the same. As a result, a Donatist would be likely to see the Roman officials and troops as oppressors subjugating them. A Catholic would see those same officials and troops as providing support and security against a dangerous sect of heretics.
3. We must recognize the genre, accuracy to events and torture. The genre pertains to the transcripts of (quasi) judicial trials focusing on interrogations. These are typically short and there is a distinct possibility that the current incarnations are edited. The accuracy is very hard to judge, as there are essentially no non-Donatist accounts to compare them against. Torture was a legal and accepted means of both punishment and ensuring truth in Rome. Legally, everyone could face it. In practice, only the (predominantly Christian) lower classes could expect to face it. These three issues are all important, as they all possess the capability to color the impression left on an observer. To a Donatist, torture is an accepted part of life. To us, that same act is barbarism.
4. Cyprian was punished for "wretched crimes," and was sentenced to die by the sword.
Felix was punished for failure to hand over Scriptures for destruction. He was placed in prison to try to force his hand, and when that failed he was executed.
Maxima, Donatilla and Secunda were punished for failure to render sacrifices at the order of the proconsul. They were ordered tortured, and when that failed they were to be fed to a bear. Said bear disagreed, and as a result they were to die by the sword.
5. Gender doesn't really matter nor is it mentioned in a way to make one gender have more importance. Felix likely would have been lionized above the rest due to his action of refusing to hand over Scriptures.
1. Historians begun to reexamine the traditional story of Donatist sect by looking at the martyrs stories on both side between Donatist and Catholics. For example, the two victors’ stories Optatus and Augustine explain the conflict of two parts. They use law codes, contemporary historians and martyrs stories like Maxima and the Abitinians to support their idea.
ReplyDelete2. The two Christian sects are Donatists and Catholics. Catholics thought that all scriptures should be burned while Donatists believe that they should keep those as part of the religion. Donatists also thought the people who give tax to the church are traitors. Early Christians saw State as a necessary condition of life, but general society didn’t see State in that way. In the second view of relationship between church and state, Donatists thought people who revive of the State theory are Anti-christ. However, Catholic Christians still use assisting by State to persecute Donatist Christians.
3. The three issues we must know to understand of proper context of the Martyr stories are genre, accuracy, and torture. Those issues are important for historic peoples because they are part of their life. Also they can gain lots of profit though charge people to see others got tortured. For modern day scholars, those issues could be their support evidences to show people what the ancient Christians are.
4. Cyprian was punished by swords because he is the bishop for these people who has impious attitude of the Catholicism. Felix was also executed by sword because he refused to hand in the scriptures. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were punished to fight with bear because they refused to sacrifice to God. After the bear leave them unharmed, they were executed by sword. These scenes of torture help the Donatist sect because it shows the cruel side of Catholicism.
5. I don’t think Gender fit into these new interpretations of the Donatist movement. Catholic council punished Donatists who don’t obey their order no matter what gender they are. For instance, Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda( three female virgin) were executed by sword which is same as Felix the bishop.
1.Pointed out as early as 1934 by Walter Bauer, it is accepted that the history of the Donatist is a bias translation from the side of the victors of this conflict. "Historians have started to focus on the long neglected texts not filtered through the sieve of the Catholic polemic"One translation of the Donatist is the English text Tyconius Liber Regularum.
ReplyDelete2.The divisions in the two Christian sects was over how the state was viewed.The first way the State was viewed was in the fact that "Christians saw that the State was a necessary condition of life in the world, a manifestation of the general authority of God for the ordered conduct of human affairs. Church and State were both established by God and mutually reinforced Christian morality". The second view of the State was that "the State as an entity and in the person of its leader was the servant of Satan or the Anti Christ in the Bible and the writings of the Christian polemicists of the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
3.The three issues that must be recognized in order to understand the Martyr texts is the genre of the stories, the degree to which the stories actually reflect the events of the time, and torture. Two genres used in the telling of these stories are acta (which focus on the interogation of the martyrs in judicial or quasi- judicial proceedings) and passiones (which concentrate on the passions or sufferings and deaths the martyrs).
4.Cyprianus was the major theologian and bishop of North African Christianity who was executed by sword for his strong stance on unity of the church and validity of schismatic baptism. Felix was also a bishop who was martyred ,by sword, for his refusal to hand over the scriptures to be burned. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were three young women who were also beheaded by sword for remaining faithful to their ancestral religion. They were to be initially mauled by a bear but the bear did not attack them. These Donatist martyrs were responsible for bringing more followers to their faith by exposing the atrocities of the new religion.
5.I do not think that gender matters because the Donatist seem to favor valiance and loyalty over gender roles. The mere fact that three women are cited as martyrs shows that they value religious piety over gender roles.
1. Rather than opting for the continued use of texts from Optatus of Milevis and Augustine of Hippo, the victors of the battle between the Catholic and Donatist sects of Christianity, historians have begun to reexamine the traditional story of the Donatist sect by considering Donatist resources such as Tyconius or various neglected germane texts. Essentially, historians have begun to expand beyond the records of the victors and into the records of the non-victors: the Donatists.
ReplyDelete2. To put the division of the sects simply in terms of their relationship to the “state,” two sects of early Christianity developed: one which viewed the state as necessary and potentially divine and another which viewed the state as evil, the “antichrist.” The latter had difficulty in garnering support after Constantine ended Roman persecution of Christians and began considering Christianity a valid religion. Under the reign of Constantine, another issue erupted causing further divide between the two developing sects of Christianity: some bishops succumbed to state pressures to either turn in or sacrifice scripture. What would become the Donatist sect condemned this act while what would become Catholicism approved of it. This issue came to the head when Carthaginian church officials barred Numidian church officials from electing a successor bishop. Here, the emergence of the Donatists and the Catholics seems to begin. Throughout the following years, multiple instances of Constantine or the state being called upon to adjudicate over issues between the sects occurred. Catholicism’s victory over Donatism was cemented when such issues were also voted on in favor of Catholicism.
3. The genre of the stories is important. The first genre is acta which are transcripts of Roman judicial proceedings in this case of cases on Donatist martyrs. The second are passiones which are more narrative renditions of the life and death of martyrs. A need for thorough understanding of the genre lies in the need to understand the function of the piece being read. Whether the piece is on a judicial proceeding or a narrative built to influence later Christians in their faith is important for knowing what to expect from the work and any potential bias or misconstruation. The second issue is understanding the degree of truth inherent in these stories and to what end should they be taken as unskewed fact. The second thing to know in order to contextualize these stories is the legal proceedings against Donatists in Rome at this time. The edicts by Constantine and his son, Constans, and their subsequent enforcement or neglect in towns and cities in North Africa are vital to understanding why Donatists were being persecuted at this time. The last issue to note before reading these stories is that of torture. Torture was commonplace in Rome at this time; torture was permissible in judicial proceedings. And it served many functions, but especially the function of creating a new world whose constructions resemble that of the torturers. This kind of torture, it is important to note, was recorded in these texts not to preserve this world and inflict greater fear, but to preserve the memory of these martyrs and inspire later persecuted Donatists and Christians. A thorough understanding of this is pivotal for historians as they can then know the reason for the existence of these pieces
4. Cyprian was killed by the sword for his Christian beliefs. He would not renounce his Christian beliefs and pronounce belief in Roman deities and thus he was killed. Felix was also killed by the sword, but for not giving up sacred Christian texts to the Roman government. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were all three killed by the sword, but not before various other tortures were attempted, particularly the use of bear. These three were killed for not renouncing their belief in the Christian God and sacrificing to Pagan gods. These scenes of torture really helped the Donatist sect. They portrayed the Roman government as brutal and cruel while also offering inspiration for future Donatists facing persecution. While the Romans may have eliminated five Christians (some Donatists), their creation of martyrs inspired many many more.
Delete5. Martyrdom seems to be applicable to either gender. With the examples of Cyprian and Felix, we see males as martyrs, but the incorporation of translations about Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda provide a text that exhibits female martyrdom. This could be used to inspire Donatists across genders and preserve Christianity’s “universal” following by opening the door for anybody within the Donatist sect.
1. Historians began to reexamine the traditional story of the Donatist sect because there story was not told to the fullest and was not documented well because they did not win “a religious war” between the Catholic Church. When you win a religious war, or any war, your story, mostly, is the only one told. As evidence, they utilize Latin sources, manuscripts from The Acts of the Abitinian Matyr and the surviving Donatist hagiographies.
ReplyDelete2. According to the Introduction of the Donatist Martyr Stories, “the occasion represents the first time that North African Christians conspired with the state to harass other Christians.” This sentence references to the incident when Christians would go visit their family members on friends in jail. These Christians were in jail because they refused to recant on their religion and/or because they refused to give up their religious texts to the romans. Catholic Christians and Donatists were similar in many ways except one: Donatists believed that if you gave up the religious texts to the romans that you were a traitor and this didn’t matter to the Catholics. This is what caused the division in these two Christian sects. Early Christianity viewed the state in two ways. They saw the state as necessary, with the church and state mutually being ordained by God. On the other hand, Christians saw the state as satanic and the leader being the antichrist. However, Christianity became a state-supported religion and they had to rethink their view of the state. Conversely, Donatists Christians still viewed the state as satanic and they had good reasons to.
3. The three issues we must recognize are the genre of the stories, whether the stories actually reflect the events of the time and torture. These issues are important, because they are like artifacts, they tell historians what happened in the past. These issues are important to modern day scholars because it enlightens the history on both sides of the story. The importance of genre “addresses the role the stories played in their communities.” (p.82) Historians need to know why certain genres were written—too inspire other Christians? To just record the explicit death of the martyrs? These questions help historians and modern day scholars get a better look into the past of the Catholics and Donatists. I think the second issue, reflectance of the events at the time, is the most important. Historians can assume and create hypotheses, but actually knowing about the events gives intangible proof that the event really happened. The last issue is torture, which was inflicted upon the lower class. The torture was systematic and frequent. There was no “innocent until proven guilty.” Understanding the issue of torture helps historians identify why, how and whom was tortured.
4. Cyprian was punished for being an enemy of the roman religion and gods. He was punished to death by the sword. Felix the Bishop was beheaded for not handing over the holy scriptures to the romans. Maxima and Donatilla were starved, whipped and then told to lie on crushed shells with lime. They had burning coals placed on the hair of their heads. Finally, a bear, who had not eaten in two or three days, was let loose upon them. The bear refused to attack the two sisters, and finally, they were ordered to be killed by the sword. Secunda’s punishment is not listed with Maxima and Donatilla’s, until the beast is released upon all three of them. The scenes of torture helped the Donatist sect, because it shows that the Donatists were willing to die for their religion and for what they believed in.
5. The first idea that was mentioned in the preface of the Donatist Martyr Stories was gender. In Christian literature, male figures are the role models, leaders and important figures to follow. In contrast for Donatist literature, female figures are the role models. This important key information was placed in the beginning to prepare us for the courageous stories of Maxima and Donatilla. Out of all the stories we read, these women fought back spiritually the most. They were not intimidated by the romans and their gods. They were not intimidated by the pain because their faith was strong. These 3 women go against the stereotypes that women are weak and dependent. Secunda was not looking to marry, her only love was for her God. These women are leading examples for the new interpretations of the donatist movement.
Delete1. Historians have begun looking through and studying the stories found that describe the interrogations, trials, and torture of Donatists. They have been studying the persecution of Christians as a whole before the split of Catholics and Donatists. They have studied the Edicts of Diocletian, which detail the requirements of citizens, specifically the requirement of denouncing their Christian faith. The edicts describe what was required of the communities and their leaders. Texts of the laws also reveal a lot about the conflict in North Africa.
ReplyDelete2. The controversy between Donatists and Catholics began over the seriousness of Christians giving into the pressure in persecution of handing over scriptures to be burned as required by the State. Directly after the persecution, the Church unity was valued higher over the ecclesiastical purity. Six years later, those who handed over scriptures were no longer welcome in many churches (Catholics). That year, 311, Mensurius the bishop of Carthage died. After his death, the two groups elected two new leaders (Caecilian and Majorinus), thickening the line between the two groups. Constantine, in hopes, of resolving tensions stated that the senior bishop should be recognized as Primate. Constantine showed favor of Catholics by distributing money and favors, which sparked the persecution of Donatists. The State and religion were not always interconnected. There were two Christian ways of viewing Christianity and the State. Some said the State was a manifestation of general authority of God over creation, and others said it was the servant of Satan.
3. The first issue important to recognize is the genre of the stories. The two most significant genres are the acta, which focuses on the interrogation of martyrs and their trials, as well as passions, which describes the passions, sufferings, and deaths of the martyrs. The second issue is the degree to which the stories are an actual reflection of the events during that time. The stories are translated and there are significantly more clear stories from the Catholic perspective in their records. The third issue is torture. Descriptions of the torture and deaths of martyrs are gory and disturbing but play an important role in the stories.
4. Cyprian was killed, because he agree to representing himself as bishop of the people with their “impious attitude.” They said he was an idiot for celebrating the rites of the Roman people. Felix was killed for his refusal to hand over scriptures. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were executed under the four edict of Diocletian in 304. The writings indicate they were buried with masses of people, probably before the end of the persecution. These scenes helped the cause of the Donatists. Donatists looked up to martyrs and anyone who was tortured or persecuted for their faith. It encouraged the Donatists to further pursue what they were doing, because they viewed their actions as honorable and faithful to God.
5. Gender plays a role in the Donatist movement and the writings found. Secunda was noted the third of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda. Maxima, a woman, was always in the story, but author notes that evidence suggest that Secunda was a later addition, or an afterthought. The story of three young women was not noted in old texts, but would have been extremely helpful when the clergy was collaborating and discussing the issues between catholics and Dontatists. These women, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were modeled after Jesus, but Polycarp overtook their story.
1. Since the Catholics were victors in the religious struggle in North Africa, they controlled the way Donatists were portrayed and recorded for history. Historians have begun to reexamine the story of Donatists by eliminating the influence of Catholic records of them. Several texts provided by Serge Lancel, Jean-Louis Maier, and William S. Badcock have not been filtered through Catholic re-writers and reveal information that improves our understanding of what actually happened.
ReplyDelete2. Early Christians defined the State as a necessary, physical authority created by God to oversee man, and according to this, both the Church and State were centered around Christian morality and values. When the Church and State became linked, people began to judge whether the State’s intentions were driven by God or by an anti-Christ. While Catholics remained in the opinion that the State was an extension of God, the Donatists split because of their belief that is was driven by satanic values.
3. The first issue we must recognize is the genre of the story, usually either an acta or passiones, which focus on the judicial procedure and sufferings of martyrs respectively. The second issue is how well the stories reflect the events of the time and if they are accurate. The third issue is the topic of torture, which will appear in nearly every one of these stories as part of recording the martyrs. Keeping these issues in mind for the correct context helps modern day scholars accurately acquire knowledge of the Donatists.
4. Cyprian was punished because of his official position as a Bishop for the Donatist movements. Felix was punished because of his blatant refusal to give up his scriptures that the Catholics wanted to burn. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were punished for refusing to provide sacrifice for the Catholics and firmly standing with their Donatist beliefs. All were beheaded by sword for their execution. These stories would help the Donatist sect because they show how standing with their correct beliefs of Donatism will bring them a swift and commendable death while also giving Catholics a firm statement.
5. Officially it would seem that there is no interpretation of gender in the Donatist movement, with all people receiving the same punishment and being treated the same way because of their wrongdoings against Catholicism. However, the third story of Maxima, Donatella, and Secunda seems to really highlight the innocence of the girls and tries to take advantage of that for a strong message, while the stories about the men did not.
1. Historians have begun to reexamine the traditional story of the Catholic-Donatist conflict by focusing more on "long-neglected texts not filtered through the sieve of Catholic polemic." Mos scholars focused primarily on the Catholic version of the struggle written by Optatus of Milevis and Augustine of Hippo. Scholars use the stories of the Donatist martyrs to verify and sometimes correct accounts from Optatus and Augustine.
ReplyDelete2. The main issue between the Catholics and the Donatists was rooted in a response to a crisis in ecclesiology. Early Christianity believe the State had biblical warrant and that it served "to strengthen the cohesion of the Christian community." However most people did not believe that the interests of the State agreed with Christian life.They viewed the entity of the state and the leaders as servants of Satan. When Christianity became a state-supported institution, the State helped Catholics persecute Donatist Christians.
3. To understand the proper context of the martyr stories, we must recognize the genre of the stories, the degree to which the stories accurately reflect the events of the time, and the scenes of torture. Some stories fall into the "acta" genre, which is characterized by the judicial proceedings and interrogations that martyrs had to go through. The "Passiones" genre was based more on the suffering of the marytrs. As time passed, there were more and more stories that did not fit either genre, The acounts of the martyrdoms were written primarly to inspire Christians who needed to be ale to withstand the threat of harassment by the larger community and punishment by the State.
4. Cyprian was a bishop and leader of the Donatists who was ordered to be killed by the sword to set an example for his "impious" followers. The Romans considered him ungodly by their standards. Felix of Thibicua was a bishop and was marytred for his refusal to give up the scripture to e burned. His story makes clear that being a faithful Christian means guarding the scripture at all costs, even at the expense of you life. "It is better to obey God than any human authority." Felix was ordered to die by the sword and was beheaded in the Ides of July. Maxima, Secunda and Donatilla were three teeenage girls who were executed under provisions of the 4th Edict of Diocletian which required all Christians, not only bishops and priests, to offer sacrifice to the Roman gods. One notable aspect of their execution is that bear that was sent to kill them was hesitant about the act at first, he licked the feet of each girl as a sign that the were truly saintly. The scenes of torture helped the Donatist sect because it brought them together as a group because they all face the same danger. It also encourages them to stay strong in the face pf adversity, many Donatists would be more than happy to die for their religion.
5. The Donatist respect and glorfiy the female martyrs just as mcuh as the male martyrs. They valued loyalty to true Christianity over the gender roles in popular society. The stories of the three female martyrs still inspired the rest of the Donatist community.
1. Historians have begun to look at the traditional story of the Donatist Sect from their (the Donatist Sect) point-of-view rather than from their oppressors, the Roman Empire, point-of-view. This unusual way of looking at history from the loser’s perspective can shed new light on what happened instead of the victor’s glorifying their side of the story and making the losers look like dissidents and bad people. To better understand the conflict that took place between the Donatist of Numidia in Northern Africa and the Catholics historians have started to translate and look at the stories of the Donatist martyrs from eyewitnesses.
ReplyDelete2. Divisions of the Christian faith existing there in ancient Northern Africa didn’t promulgate until Emperor Constantine immersed the state and the church together. In Constantine’s acceptance of the Christian faith he ordered that all scriptures be handed over to be burned or sacrificed. And this is where the main split between the Donatist and Catholics began. To the Donatist, the Bishops who succumbed to Roman authority and law and “handed over scriptures were no longer welcome,” however, Catholics the religion sect supported and obtained by the state of Rome accepted those Bishops who did turn over scriptures and allowed them to not be prosecuted. The Donatist refused to recognize an imperially-backed bishop of Carthage” which eventually lead to Constantine repressing those who would not recognize Caecilian’s election. These actions by the State puts them right in the middle of the dispute between the Catholics and Donatist.
3. Genre, how intertwined the church and state were, and torture are three issues we must know to understand the proper context of the Martyr stories. The literary form of the stories were either “acta or passions” (81). In the acta genre of writing, it talks about the interrogation of the martyrs in their court proceedings. The other genre instead focuses on the desires or suffering and deaths of the martyrs. This issue of genre is important for historic people and modern day scholars due to there being,”too many pieces which do not neatly fit either category,” making it difficult to determine why such pieces were recorded in the first place. The Roman religion states that the church and state were indistinguishable. You can say the Church and state were intertwined to a very high degree because the emperor was looked on as a bishop for those who didn’t have one and anytime a dispute came up on “doctrine or worship” the emperor took it upon himself to make peace. This issue serves as a basis to historic people and modern day scholars to help us distinguish between which side of the story reveals a more accurate picture and how intertwined the state and church effected the stories and the actuality of their revelations. Understanding torture, the third issue, is important because the way we punish criminals now versus the way they punished and prosecuted criminals in the third and fourth centuries differs greatly. In contemporary society our torture methods are humane and we govern with virtue rather than austerity has the old Roman Empire did. To understand that their punishment was much more severe can help explain the stories of the martyrs and what they went through.
4. Cyprian was punished for so-called “conspiracy” and as an enemy of Roman deities and their Gods so he and his followers dies by being sliced by a sword. Felix the Bishop was punished for refusing to hand over sacred books which he was beheaded by a sword for refusing to do. Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda were all punished for refusing to sacrifice to the emperor because their true faith was in God. They were first ordered to death to be eaten by a bear however the bear didn’t kill them so then they were ordered to be killed by sword and thus they all died by getting beheaded.
Delete5. Gender does play a role in the Donatist movement because throughout the stories and description of these times you see all leader type positions as males. The bishops, governors, and emperors all has men. It even says that punishment was harsher for men and that women and children got treated more fairly. The women martyrs of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda show how even females were important to the Donatist and their Christian sect.